Distillations | Science History Institute

Jayson Porter has written for Distillations magazine on topics ranging from mules and sesame seeds, to arsenic and porgy fish. At first, these things might sound kind of random, but they share a common thread. Together they reveal hidden stories about the black experience in Mexico and the United States. Join us for a conversation with Jayson about using the traces left by everyday objects to examine histories that weren't always written down.

This episode was filmed in our studio, and you can watch it on our YouTube Channel: https://www.youtube.com/@ScienceHistoryInstitute.

Host: Alexis Pedrick Executive Producer: Mariel Carr Senior Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez Sound Design: Samia Bouzid Fact-Checking: Alexandra Atiya Music by Blue Dot Sessions

Porter, Jayson. Rings of Fire, Distillations magazine. February 1, 2024.

Porter, Jayson. Mule Power, Distillations magazine. October 16, 2025.

Porter, Jayson. Sesame Plots, Distillations magazine. April 17, 2025

Come celebrate our newest Distillations podcast season, American Vice. From cigarettes to alcohol to fireworks, this season is all about our relationship with risk, how science plays a role in it, and how it has shaped the American experience.

To do it, we're partnering with our friends at the Crossroads Comedy Theater to bring you a special edition of their popular Study Hall: Comedy Inspired By Lectures show. Join us for an experience unlike any you have seen before—or will ever see again!

Enjoy short talks about topics from our podcast episodes, after which Crossroads' cast of amazing improvisers will use what they learned (or didn't learn) to create hilarious scenes right before your eyes!

You'll learn, laugh, and leave without homework.

The museum will stay open until 6pm, at which time the show will begin. The event is free, but registration is required. Light refreshments will be served.

Many of us have heard of Long COVID, but few of us understand the depth and breadth of the diagnosis or the history leading up to it. We talk with medical anthropologist Emily Mendenhall about her book on invisible illnesses and what happens when medical symptoms are hard to explain. We discuss why patients are dismissed and how the history of hysteria, neurasthenia, and chronic fatigue syndrome all contribute to Long COVID denialism.

Host: Alexis Pedrick Executive Producer: Mariel Carr Senior Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez Sound Design: Seth Samuel Fact-Checking: Alexandra Atiya Music by Blue Dot Sessions

Mendenhall, Emily. Invisible Illnesses: A History, from Hysteria to Long COVID. University of California Press: 2026.

Silver's Volatile History. How long have people been pinning their hopes on silver? And what makes it valuable to us? Is it just because it's shiny and pretty or do we care about its practical uses too? Join us as we go down the rabbit hole to find out how Nevada got its nickname as the Silver State, how The Wizard of Oz might have actually been a hidden story about money, and how a trio of billionaire brothers managed to control more than a third of the world's silver supply. Along the way, we'll find the science in a story about a volatile asset.

Host: Alexis Pedrick Executive Producer: Mariel Carr Senior Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez Sound Design: Seth Samuel Fact-Checking: Alexandra Atiya

Music by Blue Dot Sessions.

A conversation with the author of The Acid Queen: The Psychedelic Life and Counterculture Rebellion of Rosemary Woodruff Leary.

If you've ever read anything about the history of psychedelics, the name Timothy Leary will probably sound familiar. He was a Harvard psychologist who researched psychedelics within academia before getting fired in 1963 and taking his experiments underground. But you might never have heard of Timothy's wife, Rosemary Woodruff Leary. We talk with author Susannah Cahalan about her book on Rosemary and how she played a quiet but foundational role in our early understanding of LSD. We also talk about our history of pinning our hopes on a miracle chemical and why some people are skeptically embracing psychedelics today.

Host: Alexis Pedrick Executive Producer: Mariel Carr Senior Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez Sound Design: Samia Bouzid Fact-Checking: Alexandra Atiya

Music by Blue Dot Sessions.

In this interview, the Timothy Leary Papers were described as consisting of 400 boxes. The collection actually includes 610 boxes, 11 oversized folders, 22 tubes, 67 audio files, and 1.78 Gigabytes of computer files. A full list can be found here.

In this interview, the Rosemary Woodruff Leary Papers were described as ancillary. Technically, the New York Public Library does not refer to the collection as "ancillary" or "secondary." Rosemary's collection has its own separate call number. More information can be found here.

In this interview, the Rosemary Woodruff Leary Papers were described as consisting of 25 boxes. The collection actually includes 24 boxes, 1 volume, and 11.75 mb of computer files. A full list can be found here.

In this interview, Rosemary's mystical experience was described as taking place when she was seven years old. The incident actually took place in 1943 during the summer after her 8th birthday.

In this interview, Martin McLuhan was described as having told Timothy Leary to sell the LSD experience like Coca-Cola. Martin actually told Leary to sell it like Pepsi.

How did a covert chemical treatment permanently change our drinking water? In 1908, two men, John L. Leal and George Warren Fuller, spent 99 days secretly constructing something that would fundamentally alter the Jersey City water supply. Their decision to add chlorine is one that continues to impact our lives for the better, but there was no large-scale testing or approval process. This episode, brought to us by producer Caitlin Faulds, explores the big questions about Leal and Fuller's great experiment. Do the ends justify the means? What if it hadn't worked? And how did people react when they found out?

Host: Alexis Pedrick Reporter: Caitlin Faulds Executive Producer: Mariel Carr Senior Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez Sound Design: Seth Samuel Fact-Checking: Alexandra Atiya

Cigarettes: they provide no nutrition and quench no thirst. They serve no purpose other than being an excuse to take a break from the grind before getting right back to it. And on top of that, they're deadly. As far as American vices go, they might be at the top of the list. So how did they get and stay popular for so long? And why are they making a comeback?

This two-part episode dives into the rise of this quintessential American product, the science that proved it was dangerous, and the eventual reckoning that came from a mysterious box of documents—one delivered with the return address of an iconic cartoon character. Along the way, we'll uncover what has driven so many Americans to risk their lives to light up despite what the science has told us.

Host: Alexis Pedrick Executive Producer: Mariel Carr Senior Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez Sound Design: Seth Samuel Fact-Checking: Alexandra Atiya

Cigarettes: they provide no nutrition and quench no thirst. They serve no purpose other than being an excuse to take a break from the grind, before getting right back to it. And on top of that, they're deadly. As far as American vices go, they might be at the top of the list. So how did they get and stay popular for so long? And why are they making a comeback?

This two-part episode dives into the rise of this quintessential American product, the science that proved it was dangerous, and the eventual reckoning that came from a mysterious box of documents—one delivered with the return address of an iconic cartoon character. Along the way, we'll uncover what has driven so many Americans to risk their lives to light up—despite what the science has told us.

Credits

Host: Alexis Pedrick Executive Producer: Mariel Carr Senior Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez Sound Design: Seth Samuel Fact-Checking: Alexandra Atiya

Music by Blue Dot Sessions.

Check out our new season, dropping weekly on Tuesdays, starting September 15th.

Alexis Pedrick joins Sam Jones and Deboki Chakravarti to bring you an episode from Tiny Matters, an award-winning podcast from the American Chemical Society produced by Multitude.

The episode, which originally aired in February 2026, explores the surprising origins and evolution of one of modern medicine's most important tools: the clinical trial. Tiny Matters follows the development of experimental design across centuries to modern-day randomized control trials and the debates about their limitations, trying to answer the question, "How do we know whether a treatment truly works?"

Host: Alexis Pedrick Executive Producer: Mariel Carr Senior Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez

Placebo Controls, Exorcisms and the Devil

The Eight Wars of Religion (1562–1598)

The Emergence of the Randomized, Controlled Trial

The Emergence of the Randomized Controlled Trial: Origins to 1980

Streptomycin Treatment of Pulmonary Tuberculosis

Estimated Costs of Pivotal Trials for Novel Therapeutic Agents Approved by the US Food and Drug Administration, 2015-2016

Conservative Treatment of Acute Appendicitis: An Overview

Most Patients with Appendicitis Can Have Antibiotics as Their First Treatment, Rather than Appendectomy

Assessing the Gold Standard—Lessons from the History of RCTs

This episode is a co-production with Lost Women of Science.

Agnes Pockels did pioneering work in surface science. Her invention, the Pockels Trough, became the basis for an instrument that helped Katherine Burr Blodgett and Irving Langmuir make discoveries in material science that quietly shape our everyday world.

But the way we talk about Agnes's life and work often falls back on familiar tropes about women's domestic roles, assumptions about how science gets done, and what it looked like to do science as a woman in the 19th century.

Agnes's story invites us to rethink how we define success for scientists. Is our definition too narrow? And what might we gain if we crack it open a bit wider?

Host: Alexis PedrickExecutive Producer: Mariel CarrProducer: Rigoberto Hernandez Additional Reporting: Sophia Levin Art Design: Lily Whear Fact-Checking: Alexandria Attia Sound Design: Ana Tuirán

Brigitte Van Tiggelen Brigitte Van Tiggelen is the Science History Institute's director of international affairs, working from the Institute's office in Paris. Trained as both a physicist and a historian, she is the coeditor of Women in Their Element: Selected Women's Contributions to the Periodic System (2019), a volume that brings together more than two decades of research and publication of the life and work of women in science.

Donald L. Opitz Donald L. Opitz is a historian of science who teaches in the School of Continuing and Professional Studies and Department of History at DePaul University. He is writing a book that traces the international movement for the advancement of women in agriculture and horticulture from the mid-19th to mid-20th centuries.

Petra Mishnik Petra Mischnick was a professor of food chemistry at Technische Universität Braunschweig, Germany. There she founded and ran the Agnes Pockels Student Lab to inspire young children, especially girls, to pursue science.

Kohlstedt, Sally Gregory and Opitz, Don. "Agnes Pockels - Surface Chemist and 'Hausfrau'," The Changing Image of the Sciences. 2002.

Pockels, Agnes. "On the Relative Contamination of the Water-Surface by Equal Quantities of Different Substances." Nature, 1892.

Sella, Andrea. "Pockels' Trough." Chemistry World, 2015.

Tiggelen, Brigitte Van. "Fräulein Agnes Pockels: The Shaping of a 'Forschende Hausfrau'," paper presented at the 24th International Congress of History of Science, Technology, and Medicine.

Bergwik, Staffan; Opitz, Donald L.; Tiggelen, Brigitte Van. Domesticity in the Making of Modern Science. 2016.

A full transcript is available on our website.

Tune in to our next episode on December 17th.

Come see Distillations LIVE for our Halloween Spooktacular! The show is Wednesday, October 30th at 7pm at the Science History Institute in Old City Philadelphia.

Almost six million people in the United States have been diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease. And with baby boomers getting older, those numbers are only expected to rise. This disease, despite being studied by scientists for more than 100 years, has no cure. In our two-part series we first dive into the personal lives of the people at the heart of this disease: the patients and their caregivers. Then we uncover why effective treatments for Alzheimer's lag so far behind those for cancer, heart disease, and HIV. It turns out that for all the decades researchers have been at war with the disease, they've also been at war with each other.

Hosts: Alexis Pedrick Reporter: Rigoberto Hernandez Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez Senior Producer: Mariel CarrAudio Engineer: James Morrison

Music courtesy of the Audio Network.

These songs were used courtesy of Blue Dot Sessions:

"Kalsted,""Stretch of Lonely," "Thin Passage," "Waltz and Fury," "Dash and Slope," "Gilroy Solo," 'House of Grendel," "Uncertain Ground," and "Watercool-Quiet."

"2019 Alzheimer's Disease Facts and Figures." Alzheimer's Association, 2019.

Begley, Sharon. "As Alzheimer's Drug Developers Give Up on Today's Patients, Where Is the Outrage?" Stat News. August 15, 2018.

Begley, Sharon. "The Maddening Saga of How an Alzheimer's 'Cabal' Thwarted Progress toward a Cure for Decades." Stat News. June 25, 2019.

"Biogen Alzheimer's Drug Shows Positive Results." CNBC. July 25, 2018.

"The Clinical Trial Journey." Mayo Clinic. Youtube video. June 5, 2019.

Garde, Damian. "Alzheimer's Study Sparks a New Round of Debate over the Amyloid Hypothesis." Stat News. July 30, 2018.

Hogan, Alex. "The Disappointing History of Alzheimer's Research." Stat News. May 21, 2019.

Itzhaki, Ruth. "Alzheimer's Disease: Mounting Evidence That Herpes Virus Is a Cause." The Conversation. October 19, 2018.

Keshavan, Meghana. "On Alzheimer's, Scientists Head Back to the Drawing Board—and Once-Shunned Ideas Get an Audience." Stat News. July 22, 2019.

Li, Yun. "Biogen Posts It'sthe Worst Day in 14 Years after Ending Trial for Blockbuster Alzheimer's Drug." CNBC. March 21, 2019.

"Lilly Alzheimer's Drug Does Not Slow Memory Loss: Study." CNBC. November 23, 2016.

"The MacNeil/Lehrer Report; Living with Alzheimer's." 1983-04-12, National Records and Archives Administration, American Archive of Public Broadcasting (WGBH and the Library of Congress), Boston and Washington, DC, accessed October 16, 2019.

"The MacNeil/Lehrer NewsHour," 1991-08-16, NewsHour Productions, American Archive of Public Broadcasting (WGBH and the Library of Congress), Boston, MA and Washington, DC, accessed October 22, 2019.

Makin, Simon. "The Amyloid Hypothesis on Trial." Nature. July 25, 2018.

Prusiner, Stanley. Madness and Memory: The Discovery of Prions—A New Biological Principle of Disease. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2014.

Robakis, Nikolaos, et al. "Alzheimer's Disease: A Re-examination of the Amyloid Hypothesis." ALZforum.org. March 26, 1998.

Shenk, David. "The Forgetting—Alzheimer's: Portrait of an Epidemic." New York: Anchor, 2013.

"Virginia Lee and John Trojanowski on the Protein Road Map to Alzheimer's." Science Watch. December 2011.

Almost six million people in the United States have been diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease. And with baby boomers getting older, those numbers are only expected to rise. This disease, despite being studied by scientists for more than 100 years, has no cure. In our two-part series we first dive into the personal lives of the people at the heart of this disease: the patients and their caregivers. Then we uncover why effective treatments for Alzheimer's lag so far behind those for cancer, heart disease, and HIV. It turns out that for all the decades researchers have been at war with the disease, they've also been at war with each other.

Hosts: Alexis Pedrick Reporter: Rigoberto Hernandez Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez Senior Producer: Mariel CarrAudio Engineer: James Morrison

Music courtesy of the Audio Network.

These songs were used courtesy of Blue Dot Sessions:

"Kalsted,""Stretch of Lonely," "Thin Passage," "Waltz and Fury," "Dash and Slope," "Gilroy Solo," 'House of Grendel," "Uncertain Ground," and "Watercool-Quiet."

"2019 Alzheimer's Disease Facts and Figures." Alzheimer's Association, 2019.

Begley, Sharon. "As Alzheimer's Drug Developers Give Up on Today's Patients, Where Is the Outrage?" Stat News. August 15, 2018.

Begley, Sharon. "The Maddening Saga of How an Alzheimer's 'Cabal' Thwarted Progress toward a Cure for Decades." Stat News. June 25, 2019.

"Biogen Alzheimer's Drug Shows Positive Results." CNBC. July 25, 2018.

"The Clinical Trial Journey." Mayo Clinic. Youtube video. June 5, 2019.

Garde, Damian. "Alzheimer's Study Sparks a New Round of Debate over the Amyloid Hypothesis." Stat News. July 30, 2018.

Hogan, Alex. "The Disappointing History of Alzheimer's Research." Stat News. May 21, 2019.

Itzhaki, Ruth. "Alzheimer's Disease: Mounting Evidence That Herpes Virus Is a Cause." The Conversation. October 19, 2018.

Keshavan, Meghana. "On Alzheimer's, Scientists Head Back to the Drawing Board—and Once-Shunned Ideas Get an Audience." Stat News. July 22, 2019.

Li, Yun. "Biogen Posts It'sthe Worst Day in 14 Years after Ending Trial for Blockbuster Alzheimer's Drug." CNBC. March 21, 2019.

"Lilly Alzheimer's Drug Does Not Slow Memory Loss: Study." CNBC. November 23, 2016.

"The MacNeil/Lehrer Report; Living with Alzheimer's." 1983-04-12, National Records and Archives Administration, American Archive of Public Broadcasting (WGBH and the Library of Congress), Boston and Washington, DC, accessed October 16, 2019.

"The MacNeil/Lehrer NewsHour," 1991-08-16, NewsHour Productions, American Archive of Public Broadcasting (WGBH and the Library of Congress), Boston, MA and Washington, DC, accessed October 22, 2019.

Makin, Simon. "The Amyloid Hypothesis on Trial." Nature. July 25, 2018.

Prusiner, Stanley. Madness and Memory: The Discovery of Prions—A New Biological Principle of Disease. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2014.

Robakis, Nikolaos, et al. "Alzheimer's Disease: A Re-examination of the Amyloid Hypothesis." ALZforum.org. March 26, 1998.

Shenk, David. "The Forgetting—Alzheimer's: Portrait of an Epidemic." New York: Anchor, 2013.

"Virginia Lee and John Trojanowski on the Protein Road Map to Alzheimer's." Science Watch. December 2011.

Listen to The Alzheimer's Copernicus Problem on October 22nd.

For almost as long as there have been television networks, science shows have been part of the TV landscape. But science programming didn't begin by accident. At first it was a way for TV stations to build trust with their audiences; then it was used as a ploy to get families to buy more television sets. But as the world changed, so did science on TV. Distillations interviewed Ingrid Ockert, a fellow at the Science History Institute and a historian of science and media, about five key contributors to the science television landscape: the Johns Hopkins Science Review, Watch Mr. Wizard, NOVA, 3-2-1 Contact, and our favorite turtleneck-wearing celebrity scientist, Carl Sagan. Our conversation revealed that successful science shows have always had one thing in common: they don't treat their audiences like dummies.

We're in the thick of producing episodes for our fall season! Here's a taste of what's coming.

The 17 rare earth elements are often called the spices or vitamins of industry. While we don't need much of them, they're sprinkled in small amounts through our most powerful, futuristic, and dare we say it, magical tools. They power our iPhones and computers; they're in wind turbines and hybrid cars. They're in dental implants, X-ray machines, and life-saving cancer drugs. They have unusual magnetic and electrical properties that make our gadgets faster, stronger, and lighter. And we've all been coasting along enjoying their magic for a while now. In fact, we've come to expect magic. But magic comes at a cost, and in the case of mining and processing rare earths, that cost is environmental devastation. Most of us in the Western world aren't aware of the destruction/ because most rare earths are mined elsewhere. But some scientists are trying to find a more environmentally sound way to get them.

Hosts: Alexis Pedrick and Elisabeth Berry Drago Reporter: Rigoberto Hernandez Senior Producer: Mariel Carr Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez Audio Engineer: James Morrison Music courtesy of the Audio Network, Blue Dot Sessions, and the Free Music Archive.

Abraham, David. Elements of Power.New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2015.

The Californian Rare Earths Mine Caught between Trump and China. Bloomberg News, September 26, 2018.

"China-Japan Boat Crash Video Posted." Al Jazeera, November 5, 2010.

"China Threatens to Cut Off Rare Earth Minerals as Trade War Escalates." MSNBC, May 30, 2019.

"Colorado Experience: Uranium Mania." Rocky Mountain PBS, November 2, 2017.

"Critical Materials Strategy." U.S. Department of Energy, December 2010.

Desai, Pratima. "Tesla's Electric Motor Shift to Spur Demand for Rare Earth Neodymium."Reuters, March 12, 2018.

Gifford, Rob. "Yellow River Pollution Is Price of Economic Growth." National Public Radio, All Things Considered, December 11, 2007.

Haxel, Gordon, Hedrick, James, Orris, Greta. "Rare Earth Elements—Critical Resources for High Technology." U.S. Geological Survey, Fact Sheet 087-02, November 20, 2002.

Kalantzakos, Sophia. China and the Geopolitics of Rare Earths. New York: Oxford University Press, 2018.

Kean, Sam. "Ytterby: The Tiny Swedish Island That Gave the Periodic Table Four Different Elements." Slate, July 16, 2010.

Kim, Meeri. "Exposing the Trail of Devastation." Sarah Lawrence College Magazine," Fall 2018.

Klinger, Julie. Rare Earth Frontiers.Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2017.

Lovins, Amory. "Clean Energy and Rare Earths: Why Not to Worry." Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists,May 23, 2017.

"Obama Denounces China on Rare Earth Elements." AFP News Agency, March 13, 2012.

"PBS NewsHour; June 14, 2010 7:00 pm–8:00 pm EDT." American Archive of Public Broadcasting (WGBH and the Library of Congress), Boston and Washington, DC. Accessed June 24, 2019.

"Running from Rare Earth Metals." Bloomberg, June 30, 2015.

Salomon, Charlotte Abney. "Finding Yttrium: Joan Gadolin and the Development of a 'Discovery.'" CHF Brown Bag Lecture Series, March 10, 2015.

"Story of Color Television." RCA, 1956.

Thomson, Gene. "Hot Canyon." Ames Laboratory, June 18, 2012.

Turner, Roger. "Material Matters: The Past and Present of Rare Earth Elements Essential to Our Future." Joseph Priestley Society Lecture, Science History Institute, Philadelphia, February 14, 2019.

The 17 rare earth elements are often called the spices or vitamins of industry. While we don't need much of them, they're sprinkled in small amounts through our most powerful, futuristic, and dare we say it, magical tools. They power our iPhones and computers; they're in wind turbines and hybrid cars. They're in dental implants, X-ray machines, and life-saving cancer drugs. They have unusual magnetic and electrical properties that make our gadgets faster, stronger, and lighter. And we've all been coasting along enjoying their magic for a while now. In fact, we've come to expect magic. But magic comes at a cost, and in the case of mining and processing rare earths, that cost is environmental devastation. Most of us in the Western world aren't aware of the destruction/ because most rare earths are mined elsewhere. But some scientists are trying to find a more environmentally sound way to get them.

Hosts: Alexis Pedrick and Elisabeth Berry Drago Reporter: Rigoberto Hernandez Senior Producer: Mariel Carr Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez Audio Engineer: James Morrison Music courtesy of the Audio Network, Blue Dot Sessions, and the Free Music Archive.

Abraham, David. Elements of Power.New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2015.

The Californian Rare Earths Mine Caught between Trump and China. Bloomberg News, September 26, 2018.

"China-Japan Boat Crash Video Posted." Al Jazeera, November 5, 2010.

"China Threatens to Cut Off Rare Earth Minerals as Trade War Escalates." MSNBC, May 30, 2019.

"Colorado Experience: Uranium Mania." Rocky Mountain PBS, November 2, 2017.

"Critical Materials Strategy." U.S. Department of Energy, December 2010.

Desai, Pratima. "Tesla's Electric Motor Shift to Spur Demand for Rare Earth Neodymium."Reuters, March 12, 2018.

Gifford, Rob. "Yellow River Pollution Is Price of Economic Growth." National Public Radio, All Things Considered, December 11, 2007.

Haxel, Gordon, Hedrick, James, Orris, Greta. "Rare Earth Elements—Critical Resources for High Technology." U.S. Geological Survey, Fact Sheet 087-02, November 20, 2002.

Kalantzakos, Sophia. China and the Geopolitics of Rare Earths. New York: Oxford University Press, 2018.

Kean, Sam. "Ytterby: The Tiny Swedish Island That Gave the Periodic Table Four Different Elements." Slate, July 16, 2010.

Kim, Meeri. "Exposing the Trail of Devastation." Sarah Lawrence College Magazine," Fall 2018.

Klinger, Julie. Rare Earth Frontiers.Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2017.

Lovins, Amory. "Clean Energy and Rare Earths: Why Not to Worry." Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists,May 23, 2017.

"Obama Denounces China on Rare Earth Elements." AFP News Agency, March 13, 2012.

"PBS NewsHour; June 14, 2010 7:00 pm–8:00 pm EDT." American Archive of Public Broadcasting (WGBH and the Library of Congress), Boston and Washington, DC. Accessed June 24, 2019.

"Running from Rare Earth Metals." Bloomberg, June 30, 2015.

Salomon, Charlotte Abney. "Finding Yttrium: Joan Gadolin and the Development of a 'Discovery.'" CHF Brown Bag Lecture Series, March 10, 2015.

"Story of Color Television." RCA, 1956.

Thomson, Gene. "Hot Canyon." Ames Laboratory, June 18, 2012.

Turner, Roger. "Material Matters: The Past and Present of Rare Earth Elements Essential to Our Future." Joseph Priestley Society Lecture, Science History Institute, Philadelphia, February 14, 2019.

Rare earths power our modern world. They make the magic happen. But at what cost?

Tune in to our next episode on June 25th.

In the summer of 1969 the Cuyahoga River in Cleveland, Ohio, defied the laws of nature and caught fire. Timecovered the event and cemented the fire's place in national lore. The story that followed says this fire captured the country's attention and brought to light the environmental hazards not only in Cleveland but in the country as a whole. And it went on to spark the modern environmental movement. This all sounds like such a nice, tidy story. But in reality things were much more complicated and involved politics, the space race, and just plain timing.

Hosts: Alexis Pedrick and Elisabeth Berry Drago Reporter: Larry Buhl Senior Producer:Mariel Carr Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez Audio Engineer: James Morrison Music courtesy of the Audio Network

"Carl Stokes and the River Fire." National Park Service. Last updated May 2, 2019.

"The Cuyahoga River Fire: A New Mayor Tackles an Old Problem." CSU Digital Humanities. YouTube video, 01:07, August 6, 2010.

"The Cuyahoga River Fire, Part 1: Don't Fall in the River." CSU Center for Public History and Digital Humanities. Video, 01:23, 2010.

"Cuyahoga River Pollution Ohio 1967." YouTube video, 04:45, March 20, 2010.

Cuyahoga River Restoration.

Doyle, Jack. "Burn On, Big River…," Cuyahoga River Fires, PopHistoryDig.com,May 12, 2014.

Heaton, Michael. "Burning River Fest Parties in the Name of the Environment." Plain Dealer, July 19, 2012.

Holt, Lawrence R., and Diane Garey, dir. The Return of the Cuyahoga.2008. Oley, PA: Bullfrog Films.

Rotman, Michael. "Cuyahoga River Fire." Cleveland Historical Society, April 27, 2017.

Scott, Michael. "Scientists Monitor Cuyahoga River Quality to Adhere to Clean Water Act." Plain Dealer, April 12, 2009.

Stradling, David, and Richard Stradling. Where the River Burned: Carl Stokes and the Struggle to Save Cleveland.Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2015.

"Year of the River: A Look at the Cuyahoga River 40 Years after It Caught Fire." Special series, Plain Dealer, 2011.

When we think about the U.S.-Mexico border, it's hard not to think about the current immigration conflict and the contentious idea to build a wall. But the concept of a border wall isn't new: proposals for walls have been made for more than 100 years. Our story starts in 1947, when a group of Texas ranchers demanded a fence along their state's border with Mexico. Their motivation, though, was to stop an outbreak of a disease that struck farm animals. The response to the crisis was complicated and often messy. But in the end two countries came together to solve a complex predicament—instead of building a wall.

Hosts: Alexis Pedrick and Elisabeth Berry Drago Senior Producer: Mariel Carr Producers: Rigoberto Hernandez, Alexis Pedrick Photo illustration by Jay Muhlin

Music courtesy of the Audio Network.

Cervantes Sanchez, Juan, Roman Diaz, Ana Bertha Velazquez Camacho. "Una historia de vacunos y vacunas: Retrospectiva de la epizootia de Fiebre Aftosa en Mexico a 65 años de distancia." Revista electronica de Veterinaria 11:B (May 2011).

Clements, Kendrick. "Managing a National Crisis: The 1924 Foot-and-Mouth Disease Outbreak in California." California History84:3 (Spring 2007).

Domel, Jessica. "USDA Expands Fever Tick Fencing in South Texas." Texas Agriculture Daily, January 2, 2019.

Dusenberry William. "Foot and Mouth Disease in Mexico, 1946-1951." Agricultural History 29:2 (April 1955).

Fox, M. Kel. "The Campaign against Foot-and-Mouth Disease in Mexico, 1946-1951." Journal of Arizona History 38:1 (Spring 1997).

Ledbetter, John. "Fighting Foot-and-Mouth Disease in Mexico: Popular Protest against Diplomatic Decisions." The Southwestern Historical Quarterly, 104:(3), (January 2001).

Machado, A. Manuel. "Aftosa and the Mexican-United States Sanitary Convention of 1928." Agricultural History 39:4. (October 1965).

Mendoza, Mary. "Battling Afotsa: North-to-South Migration Accross the U.S.-Mexico Border, 1947-1954." Journal of the West, 54:1 (Winter 2015).

Mendoza, Mary. "Treacherous Terrain: Racial Exclusion and Environmental Control at the U.S.-Mexico Border." Environmental History 23 (January 2018).

Mulvey, Ruth. "Cattle Killing Turns Peon against Doctor." The Washington Post, January 4, 1948.

Outbreak. Department of Agriculture, Office of Public Affairs. 1949.

Proctor, George. "An American Tragedy in Mexico: The Death of Robert Proctor." Journal of Arizona History38:4 (1997).

Sill Wickware, Francis. "Crusade in Mexico." Collier's, August 20, 1949.

"Texas Cattle Fever." U.S.Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Library.

When Mexico and the United States resolved their beef.

In the late 1950s a Texas town on the Gulf of Mexico was suffering from a devastating, decade-long drought. But while the wells ran dry, the ocean lapped at the town's shore, taunting the thirsty residents with its endless supply of undrinkable water. Undrinkable, that is, until President John F. Kennedy stepped in to save the day with the promise of science. The evolving technology of desalination wouldn't just end droughts: it would give us as much water as we wanted. It would allow us to inhabit otherwise uninhabitable places. It would let us make the deserts bloom. But at what cost?

Hosts: Alexis Pedrick and Elisabeth Berry Drago Senior Producer: Mariel Carr Producers: Rigoberto Hernandez, Alexis Pedrick Reporter: Rigoberto Hernandez Photo illustration by Jay Muhlin

Music courtesy of the Audio Network.

Barringer, Felicity. "As 'Yuck Factor' Subsides, Treated Wastewater Flows from Taps." New York Times, February 9, 2012.

Burnett, John. "When the Sky Ran Dry." Texas Monthly, July 2012.

"Countries Who Rely on Desalination." World Atlas.

Gies, Erica. "Desalination Breakthrough: Saving the Sea from Salt." Scientific American, June 6, 2016.

"Is Desalination the Future of Drought Relief in California?" PBS NewsHour, October 30, 2015.

Jaehnig, Kenton, and Jacob Roberts. "Nor Any Drop to Drink." Distillations, November 2018.

Leahy, Stephen, and Katherine Purvis. "Peak Salt: Is the Desalination Dream over for the Gulf States?" Guardian, September 29, 2016.

Madrigal, Alexis. "The Many Failures and Few Successes of Zany Iceberg Towing Schemes." Atlantic, August 10, 2011.

Miller, Joanna M. "Desalting Plant Opens Amid Surplus." Los Angeles Times, February 23, 1992.

"President Hails Desalting Plant; He Flips Switch to Dedicate Water Project in Texas." New York Times, June 22, 1961.

Pulwarty, Roger, John Wiener, and David Ware. "Bite without Bark: How the Socioeconomic Context of the 1950s U.S. Drought Minimized Responses to a Multiyear Extreme Climate Event." Weather and Climate Extremes 11 (2016): 80–94.

Rivard, Ry. "The Desalination Plant Is Finished but the Debate over It Isn't." Voice of San Diego, August 30, 2016.

"San Diego's Oversupply of Water Reaches a New, Absurd Level." Voice of San Diego, February 2, 2016.

"With the Drought Waning, the Future of Desalination Is Murkier." Voice of San Diego, June 5, 2017.

"The Year in San Diego Water Wars." Voice of San Diego, December 29, 2015.

Simon, Matt. "Desalination Is Booming. But What about All That Toxic Brine." Wired, January, 14, 2019.

"The 1976–1977 California Drought: A Review." California Department of Water Resources, May 1978.

Voutchkov, Nikolay. "Desalination—Past, Present and Future." International Water Association, August 17, 2016. Video Archive "The California Drought 1976–77: A Two Year History" (video). California Department of Water Resources.

"The MacNeil/Lehrer Report; Drought in the West." Broadcast on February 11, 1977. National Records and Archives Administration, American Archive of Public Broadcasting (WGBH and the Library of Congress), Boston, MA, and Washington, DC, accessed March 19, 2019.

"White House Today (1961)." Lake Jackson Historical Museum, 1961. Texas Archive of the Moving Image.

This Valentine's Day we could have just brought you some sappy love stories from science's past. But instead we offer you three tales of lust, loneliness, betrayal, pettiness, and not one, but two beheadings.

Hosts: Alexis Pedrick and Elisabeth Berry Drago Senior Producer: Mariel Carr Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez Reporters: Alexis Pedrick and Elisabeth Berry Drago Audio Engineer: James Morrison Photo illustration by Jay Muhlin Additional audio production by Dan Drago

Music courtesy of the Audio Network

Martha Drinnan

"Is Laurel Hill Haunted?" Laurel Hill Cemetery Blog, Laurel Hill Cemetery, Philadelphia, April 30, 2018. https://laurelhillcemetery.blog/2018/04/30/is-laurel-hill-haunted/. Sherman, Conger. Guide to Laurel Hill Cemetery, Near Philadelphia, 1847.Philadelphia: C. Sherman, 1847. https://archive.org/details/guidetolaurelhi00shergoog. Strauss, Robert. "Grave Sights." Philadelphia Inquirer, October 29, 2010. https://www.philly.com/philly/entertainment/20101029_Grave_sights.html.

It's a Thin Line Between Love and Hate

Duveen, Denis. "Madame Lavoisier 1758–1836. Chymia 5 (1953): 13–29. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/27757161.pdf?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents.

Everts, Sarah. "Acknowledging Madame Lavoisier." Artful Science (blog), C&EN, June 1, 2011. http://cenblog.org/artful-science/2011/06/01/acknowledging-madame-lavoisier/. Hoffmann, Roald. "Mme. Lavoisier."Scientific American 90 (2002): 22–24. http://www.roaldhoffmann.com/sites/all/files/mme_lavoisier.pdf. "The Human Side of Science: Edison and Tesla, Watson and Crick, and Other Personal Stories behind Science's Big Ideas (2016)." Schoolbag.info. https://schoolbag.info/science/human/6.html. "Marie-Anne Paulze Lavoisier." Wikipedia, accessed February 11, 2019. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marie-Anne_Paulze_Lavoisier&oldid=874565953.

Touched by the Angels

Clucas, Stephen, ed. John Dee: Interdisciplinary Studies in English Renaissance Thought. Dordrecht: Springer, 2006.

Dee, John. The Compendious Rehearsal. London: Thomas Hearne, 1726. British Library (website), Collection Items. https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/john-dee-is-accused-of-sorcery-after-staging-a-greek-play. Harkness, Deborah. John Dee's Conversations with Angels: Cabala, Alchemy, and the End of Nature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. In, Mystical Metal of Gold: Essays on Alchemy and Renaissance Culture, edited by Stanton J. Linden, 35–79. New York: AMS, 2007. Sherman, William Howard. John Dee: The Politics of Reading and Writing in the English Renaissance. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1997.

Egyptian scriptures from 1200 BCE describe painful, migraine-like headaches, so we know the disorder has afflicted people for at least three thousand years. Still, the condition continues to mystify us today.

Anne Hoffman is a reporter, a professor, and a chronic migraine sufferer. She spent the past year tracing the history of migraines, hoping to discover clues about a treatment that actually works for her. The journey took her in some interesting directions. One common theme she found? A whole lot of stigma.

Hosts: Alexis Pedrick and Elisabeth Berry Drago Senior Producer: Mariel Carr Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez Reporter: Anne Hoffman Photo illustration by Jay Muhlin Additional audio production by Dan Drago

Theme music composed by Zach Young.

"Valantis" and "Valantis Vespers" by Blue Dot Sessions, courtesy of the Free Music Archive.

Additional music courtesy of the Audio Network.

Interviews Matthew Crawford, Doan Fellow, Science History Institute. Margaret Heaney, professor of neurobiology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center. Joanna Kempner, sociologist and author of Not Tonight: Migraine and the Politics of Gender and Health. Anne MacGregor, medical researcher and clinician. Brian McGeeney, assistant professor of neurology, Boston University School of Medicine. Sources Brooklyn Museum, Elizabeth A. Sackler Center for Feminist Art. "Hildegarde of Bingen." McClory, Robert. "Hildegard of Bingen: No Ordinary Saint." National Catholic Reporter, March 24, 2012. Meares, Hadley. "The Medieval Prophetess Who Used Her Visions to Criticize the Church." Atlas Obscura, July 13, 2016. PBS Frontline. "Hildegard's Scivias." Songfacts. Für Hildegard Von Bingen. Wikipedia. "Scivias." Last modified October 23, 2018, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scivias. Cannabidiol (CBD): Bazelot, Michaël, Chen Tong, Ibeas Bih, Dallas Mark, Clementino Nunn, Alistair V. W. Whalley Benjamin. "Molecular Targets of Cannabidiol in Neurological Disorders." Neurotherapeutics 12 (2015): 699–730. Chen, Angus. "Some of the Parts: Is Marijuana's 'Entourage Effect' Scientifically Valid?" Scientific American, April 20, 2017. Grinspoon, Peter. "Cannabidiol (CBD)—What We Know and What We Don't." Harvard Health Blog, Harvard Health Publishing, Harvard Medical School, August 24, 2018. Science Vs. "CBD: Weed Wonder Drug?" Podcast audio, November 15, 2018.. Migraine: Kempner, Joanna. "The Birth of the Dreaded 'Migraine Personality.'" Migraine Again, November 30, 2017. Neighmond, Patti. "Why Women Suffer More Migraines Than Men." Shots: Health News from NPR, National Public Radio, April 16, 2012. Peterlin, B. Lee, Saurabh Gupta, Thomas N. Ward, and Anne MacGregor. "Sex Matters: Evaluating Sex and Gender in Migraine and Headache Research." Headache 51(6) (2011): 839–842. Sharkey, Lauren. "Why Don't We Know More about Migraines?" BBC Future, British Broadcasting Corporation, July 2, 2018. Wikipedia. "Aretaeus of Cappadocia." Last modified December 6, 2018. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aretaeus_of_Cappadocia. Cannabis for Migraine: Mandal, Ananya. "Migraine History." News-Medical, August 23, 2018. MDede. "Are Cannabinoids and Hallucinogens Viable Treatment Options for Headache Relief?" Neurology Reviews 22(5) (2014): 22–23. Available at MDedge, Clinical Neurology News.

Archival: Grass—The History of Marijuana. Directed by Ron Mann. Toronto: Sphinx Productions, 1999. Hildegard of Bingen. Directed by James Runcie. London: British Broadcasting Corporation, 1994. Reefer Madness. Directed by Louis J. Gasnier. Los Angeles: George A. Hirliman Productions, 1938.

Happy holidays from all of us here at Distillations. This holiday season our gift to you is a sneak peak at some of the stories we have in the works for 2019.

In April 1988 Harvard University was awarded a patent that was the first of its kind. U.S. Patent Number 4,736,866 was small, white, and furry, with red beady eyes. His name was OncoMouse.

The mouse, genetically engineered to have a predisposition for cancer, allowed researchers to study the disease in an intact living organism. It promised to transform cancer research, but not everyone was happy. Most critics were wary of patenting life forms at all. But academic scientists were also worried about the collision of commercial and academic science. It forced them to face difficult questions: Who should pay for science? Who does scientific knowledge belong to? And should science be for the good of the public or for profit?

Hosts: Alexis Pedrick and Elisabeth Berry Drago. Senior Producer: Mariel Carr Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez Reporter: Jessie Wright-Mendoza Photo illustration by Jay Muhlin. Additional audio production by Dan Drago.

Additional music courtesy of the Audio Network.

Interviews:

Elizabeth Popp Berman, Associate Professor of Sociology, SUNY Albany, and author of Creating the Market University: How Academic Science Became an Economic Engine. David Einhorn, House Counsel, Jackson Laboratory. Harold Varmus, Professor of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine. Ken Paigen, Executive Research Fellow and Professor, Jackson Laboratory.

Sources: Adler, Jerry. "The First Patented Animal Is Still Leading the Way on Cancer Research." Smithsonian Magazine, December 2016.

Chakrabarty, Ananda. Microorganisms having multiple compatible degradative energy-generating plasmids and preparation thereof. U.S. Patent 4259444A, filed June 7, 1981, and issued March 31, 1981.

Diamond v. Chakrabarty, 447 U.S. 303 (1980).

"Fortune Names Its '88 Products of the Year." Associated Press, November 17, 1988.

Hanahan, Douglas, Erwin Wagner, and Richard Palmiter. "The Origins of Oncomice: A History of the First Transgenic Mice Genetically Engineered to Develop Cancer." Genes and Development 21 (2007), 2258–2270.

Leder, Philip, and Timothy Stewart. Transgenic non-human mammals. U.S. Patent 4736866A, filed June 22, 1984, and issued April 12, 1988.

Leonelli, Sabina, and Rachel Ankeny. "Re-Thinking Organisms: The Impact of Databases on Model Organism Biology." Working paper, University of Exeter, April 5, 2011. Published in Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C 43:1 (2012), 29–36.

Morse, Herbert C. III, ed. Origins of Inbred Mice. New York: Academic Press, 1978. Google Books.

Murray, Fiona. "The Oncomouse That Roared: Resistance and Accommodation to Patenting in Academic Science." Working paper, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2006. Published in American Journal of Sociology 116:2 (2010), 341–388.

National Association for Biomedical Research. "Mice and Rats." Mice and Rats. Washington, DC, 2018. nabr.org.

National Museum of American History. "OncoMouse." Washington, DC, 2018. americanhistory.si.edu.

Palmer, Brian. "Jonas Salk: Good at Virology, Bad at Economics." Slate, April 13, 2014.

Rader, Karen. "The Mouse People: Murine Genetics Work at the Bussey Institution, 1909–1936." Journal of the History of Biology 31:3 (Autumn 1998), 327–354.

Russell, Elizabeth. "Origins and History of Mouse Inbred Strains: Contributions of Clarence Cook Little." Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, Maine. informatics.jax.org.

Schneider, Keith. "New Animal Forms Will Be Patented." New York Times, April 17, 1987.

Specter, Michael. "Can We Patent Life?" New Yorker, April 1, 2013.

Archival Sources:

Achbar, Mark, and Jennifer Abbott, dir. The Corporation. Canada: Big Picture Media Corporation, 2003.

Albert and Mary Lasker Foundation. "Lasker Archives: Passion and Optimism in Scientific Research." April 9, 2017, laskerfoundation.org. On the 1987 Albert Lasker Basic Medical Research Award.

Murrow, Edward. See It Now (Jonas Salk). CBS, April 12, 1955. paleycenter.org

Potter, Deborah, and Dan Rather. "Animal Patents." CBS Evening News, April 12, 1988.

Ronald Reagan Presidential Library. "Candidacy for Presidency: Ronald Reagan's Announcement for President of U.S." November 13, 1979. youtube.com.

Tune in to the next episode of Distillationson November 20th!

"We should never, ever forget that addiction treatment is a search for meaning in a place other than using drugs."

—Nancy Campbell, historian of drug addiction

(This is the third and final chapter of a three-part series. See Part 1 and Part 2.)

In the final chapter of this series we travel to the heart of our modern opioid crisis. In what is now a notorious Philadelphia neighborhood called Kensington, we meet two victims of the epidemic and follow them on two distinct paths toward recovery.

Our current devastating opioid crisis is unprecedented in its reach and deadliness, but it's not the first such epidemic the United States has experienced or tried to treat. In fact, it's the third.

Treating America's Opioid Addiction is a three-part series that investigates how we've understood and treated opioid addiction over more than a century. Through the years we've categorized opioid addiction as some combination of a moral failure, a mental illness, a biological disease, or a crime. And though we've desperately wanted the problem to be something science alone can solve, the more we look, the more complicated we learn it is.

Hosts: Alexis Pedrick and Elisabeth Berry Drago Reporters: Mariel Carr and Rigoberto Hernandez, with additional reporting by Meir Rinde Senior Producer: Mariel Carr Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez Audio Engineer: James Morrison Photo illustration by Jay Muhlin Additional audio production by Dan Drago

Music courtesy of the Audio Network.

Interviews:

Claire Clark, author of The Recovery Revolution: The Battle over Addiction Treatment in the United States. Nancy Campbell, historian and director of Science and Technology Studies at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. Chris Marshall, former member and director of the Last Stop. Miranda Thomas, Kensington resident. Joseph Garbely, vice president of medical services and medical director of the Caron Treatment Centers. Lara Weinstein, primary care physician, Project HOME and Pathways to Housing PA Special thanks to Jennifer Reardon of Temple Health Communications and toJoseph D'Orazio and David O'Gurek.

Sources:

American Addiction Centers. "Can Suboxone Get You High?" Brentwood, TN: American Addiction Centers, 2018. American Addiction Centers. "Pros and Cons of Methadone." Brentwood, TN: American Addiction Centers, 2018. Campbell, Nancy, and Anne Lovell. "The History of the Development of Buprenorphine as an Addiction Therapeutic." Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1248 (Feb. 2012): 124–39. Clark, Claire. The Recovery Revolution: The Battle over Addiction Treatment in the United States. New York: Columbia University Press, 2017. Giordano, Rita. "Opioid Addiction Treatment with Medicine Works Best. Why Don't More Young People Get It?" Philadelphia Inquirer, April 10, 2018. Oransky, Ivan. "Vincent Dole" [obituary]. Lancet 368 (Sept. 16, 2006): 984. Rockefeller University. "The First Pharmacological Treatment for Narcotic Addiction: Methadone Maintenance." Rockefeller University Hospital: 100 Years of Bridging Science and Medicine website. New York, 2010. Shuster, Alvin M. "G.I. Heroin Addiction Epidemic in Vietnam." New York Times, May 16, 1971. Thompson-Gargano, Kathleen. "What Is Buprenorphine Treatment Like?" Farmington, CT: National Alliance of Advocates for Buprenorphine Treatment. Villa, Lauren. "Methadone and Suboxone: What's the Difference Anyway?" Drugabuse.com. Waldorf, Dan, et al. Morphine Maintenance: The Shreveport Clinic 1919–1923—Special Studies No. 1.Washington, DC: Drug Abuse Council, April 1974. Whelan, Aubrey. "She Was Just out of Rehab. She Was Excited about the Future. Three Hours Later, She Was Dead." Philadelphia Inquirer, June 26, 2018. Winberg, Michaela. "Kensington's Famous Last Stop Addiction Recovery Center Prepares to Move." Billypenn.com, March 26, 2018.

Archival Sources:

Efootage.com. Richard Nixon "Law & Order" Speech—1968. Video. John Chancellor. "Washington, DC Heroin Addiction." NBC Evening News. February 4, 1971. Columbia Center for Oral History. Marie Nyswander, oral history. New York: Columbia University Libraries, Oral History Archives, 1981.

Our current devastating opioid crisis is unprecedented in its reach and deadliness, but it's not the first such epidemic the United States has experienced or tried to treat. In fact, it's the third.

Treating America's Opioid Addiction is a three-part series that investigates how we've understood and treated opioid addiction over more than a century. Through the years we've categorized opioid addiction as some combination of a moral failure, a mental illness, a biological disease, or a crime. And though we've desperately wanted the problem to be something science alone can solve, the more we look, the more complicated we learn it is.

Part 2 focuses on a controversial rehabilitation program called Synanon, which became the first significant therapeutic community for opioid addiction. From the time it opened its doors in 1958, it seemed to do what no other hospital, prison, or sanitarium had done before: cure the supposedly incurable heroin addict. But over the years its changing methods became increasingly questionable, and the controversy would ultimately lead to its demise. Despite its faults Synanon had a profound influence on subsequent generations of drug treatment programs—many of which still exist today.

CORRECTIONS: In the original episode we said that by the time John Stallone joined Synanon in 1965, stages two and three had been eliminated—meaning that there was no timeline for him to ever leave. In fact, the phasing out of those stages took longer to implement, and they were still in place when he arrived. This statement has been edited out of the updated audio version.

In the original episode David Deitch says that he found his dog hanging by a noose outside his house, and he believed that a member of Synanon was responsible. However, this story did not happen to David Deitch but to another former Synanon member named Jack Hurst. This story has been edited out of the updated audio version. All other statements made by David Deitch have been corroborated by other sources.

The original episode suggested that John Stallone left Synanon after the group's leaders started endorsing violence against children, but he left before years before the violence started. The original script read, "John left in 1972 because Dederich was asking parents to live separately from their children, to essentially turn them over to Synanon, and John and his wife didn't want to do that to their son. And they made the right decision." John Stallone: They started physically abusing the kids. They started using corporal punishment with the kids. They started hitting them and whatnot. It didn't turn out good at all." The audio version has been edited to replace "And they made the right decision" with "And years later something happened that made it clear they had made the right decision."

Hosts: Alexis Pedrick and Elisabeth Berry Drago Reporter: Mariel Carr with additional reporting by Meir Rinde Senior Producer: Mariel Carr Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez Audio Engineer: James Morrison Photo illustration by Jay Muhlin

Our theme music was composed by Zach Young. Additional music courtesy of the Audio Network.

Interviews:

Claire Clark, author of The Recovery Revolution: The Battle over Addiction Treatment in the United States. Nancy Campbell, historian and director of Science and Technology Studies at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. John Stallone, former Synanon member. David Deitch, former Synanon member, clinical and social psychologist, and emeritus professor of clinical psychiatry at the University of California, San Diego.

Sources:

Claire Clark. The Recovery Revolution: The Battle over Addiction Treatment in the United States. New York: Columbia University Press, 2017. Synanon Foundation records, Online Archive of California, oac.cdlib.org/. Synanon Foundation Oral Histories, UCLA Library, Center for Oral History Research, Los Angeles. David Deitch. "Conversation with David Deitch." Addiction X (May 3, 2002), 791-800. Hillel Aron. "The Story of This Drug-Rehab-Turned-Violent Cult Is Wild, Wild, Country-Caliber Bizarre." Los Angeles Magazine, April 23, 2018. Matt Novak. "Synanon's Sober Utopia: How a Drug Rehab Program Became a Violent Cult." Gizmodo, Paleofuture, April 15, 2014.

Film excerpts from:

The Distant Drummer: Flower of Darkness. Washington, DC: Airlie Foundation and George Washington University Department of Medical and Public Affairs, 1972. David, 1961, Drew Associates. Instant Guide to Synanon: A Compilation of the Most Frequently Asked Questions about Our Foundation. Synanon, 1973. The House on the Beach. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, 1965. YouTube, posted on February 29, 2008. Synanon. Richard Quine, director. Columbia Pictures, 1965.

In our next episode we're continuing our three-part series on the history of opioid addiction treatment in the United States. And we're going back to the early 1960s, when the foundations for our modern opioid addiction treatment system were being built--starting with a controversial drug rehabilitation program called Synanon.

Tune in to our next episode, Synanon and the Tunnel Back to the Human Race, on September 18.

Our current devastating opioid crisis is unprecedented in its reach and deadliness, but it's not the first such epidemic the United States has experienced or tried to treat. In fact, it's the third.

Treating America's Opioid Addiction is a three-part series that investigates how we've understood and treated opioid addiction over more than a century. Through the years we've categorized opioid addiction as some combination of a moral failure, a mental illness, a biological disease, or a crime. And though we've desperately wanted the problem to be something science alone can solve, the more we look, the more complicated we learn it is.

Part 1 focuses on a government-run prison-hospital, the Narcotic Farm, just for people addicted to opioids. When it opened in 1935, it promised to find a cure for drug addiction.

Hosts: Alexis Pedrick and Elisabeth Berry Drago Reporter: Mariel Carr with additional reporting by Meir Rinde Senior Producer: Mariel Carr Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez Audio Engineer: James Morrison

Our theme music was composed by Zach Young. Additional music courtesy of the Audio Network.

Interviews:

Claire Clark, author of The Recovery Revolution: The Battle Over Addiction Treatment in the United States.

Nancy Campbell, historian and the head of Science and Technology Studies at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.

John Stallone, former Narcotic Farm patient.

Sources:

Claire Clark, The Recovery Revolution: The Battle Over Addiction Treatment in the United States.

The Habit, Opioid Addiction in America, Backstory.

Inside the Story of America's 19th-Century Opiate Addiction, Smithsonian Magazine.

Films:

The Distant Drummer: Flower of Darkness The Distant Drummer: Bridge From No Place The Narcotic Farm

We're hard at work on our next season. Listen to the first episode on August 21st!

If you live in Los Angeles, or even if you've just visited, you know about smog. But what might surprise you is that a half-century ago the city's air quality was more unbearable, even though the city had far fewer cars.

In the final installment of our three-part series on environmental success stories, we tell you about Los Angeles's caveat-filled triumph over smog. The battle started in the 1940s and continues today, but along the way crucial pieces of technology and legislation helped clear the air—and forced the whole country to follow.

Hosts: Alexis Pedrick and Elisabeth Berry Drago Senior Producer: Mariel Carr Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez Audio Engineer: James Morrison

Our theme music was composed by Zach Young. Additional music courtesy of the Audio Network.

To research this episode we read Smogtown: The Lung-Burning History of Pollution in Los Angelesand interviewed its author, Chip Jacobs. We also interviewed Roger Turner, research fellow for the Beckman Legacy Project at the Science History Institute.

Tune in to the next episode of Distillationson June 26!

Remember acid rain? If you were a kid in the 1980s like our hosts were, the threat of poison falling from the sky probably made some kind of impression on your consciousness. But thanks to the work of scientists, government, the media, and the pope—that's right, the pope—the problem was fixed! Well, mostly fixed is probably more accurate.

This complicated story spans 27 years, six U.S. presidents, and ecologist Gene Likens's entire career. Discover the insidious details in the second chapter of our three-part series on environmental success stories.

Hosts: Alexis Pedrick and Elisabeth Berry Drago Senior Producer: Mariel Carr Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez Audio Engineer: James Morrison Additional audio was recorded by David G. Rainey.

Image of Gene Likens by Phil Bradshaw of FreshFly.

We interviewed Rachel Rothschild, a former Science History Institute research fellow and Rumford Scholar, about her book, "Poisonous Skies: Acid Rain and the Globalization of Pollution." To research this episode we read her 2015 dissertation, A Poisonous Sky: Scientific Research and International Diplomacy on Acid Rain. We also read Merchants of Doubt: How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming by Naomi Oreskes and Erik Conway (Bloomsbury, 2010).

We interviewed Gene Likens at Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in New Hampshire in 2015 with Glenn Holsten and FreshFly. We interviewed him again in May 2018.

The following are the archival news clips we used as they appear in the episode:

Bettina Gregory, Tom Jarriel, and Bill Zimmerman. ABC Evening News, December 14, 1978.

Walter Cronkite and Jim Kilpatrick. "Environment: The Earth Revisited/Acid Rain." CBS Evening News, September 11, 1979.

Robert Bazell and John Chancellor. "Special Segment: Acid Rain." NBC Evening News, May 9, 1980.

"The MacNeil/Lehrer Report: Acid Rain," NewsHour Productions, American Archive of Public Broadcasting (Boston: WGBH; Washington, DC: Library of Congress), aired May 26, 1980, on PBS, http://americanarchive.org/catalog/cpb-aacip_507-pk06w9754b.

"The MacNeil/Lehrer NewsHour," NewsHour Productions, American Archive of Public Broadcasting (Boston: WGBH; Washington, DC: Library of Congress), aired on June 30, 1988, on PBS, http://americanarchive.org/catalog/cpb-aacip_507-b56d21s53c.

Tom Brokaw and Robert Hager. "Air Pollution: George Bush." NBC Evening News, November 15, 1990.

Our theme music was composed by Zach Young.

Additional music courtesy of the Audio Network.

Tune in to the next episode of Distillationson May 22!

If you were around in the 1980s, you probably remember the lurking fear of an ominous hole in the sky. In the middle of the decade scientists discovered that a giant piece of the ozone layer was disappearing over Antarctica, and the situation threatened us all. The news media jumped on the story. The ozone layer is like the earth's sunscreen: without it ultraviolet rays from the sun would cause alarming rates of skin cancer and could even damage marine food chains. And it turns out we were causing the problem.

Today, more than three decades after the initial discovery, the ozone hole in Antarctica is finally on the road to recovery. How did we do it? This environmental success story gives us a glimpse into what happens when scientists, industry, the public, and the government all work together to manage a problem that threatens all of us. Happy Earth Day!

Hosts: Alexis Pedrick and Elisabeth Berry Drago Senior Producer: Mariel Carr Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez

To research this episode we read Merchants of Doubt: How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming by Naomi Oreskes and Erik Conway. We read, listened to, and used excerpts from an oral history with chemist Mario Molina that was conducted by the Science History Institute's Center for Oral History. We also interviewed atmospheric chemist Susan Solomon at MIT in 2016.

These are the archival news clips we used as they appear in the episode:

Dow, David; Quinn, Jane Bryant; Rather, Dan. "Ozone Layer," CBS Evening News. Aug 15, 1986. Hager, Robert; Seigenthaler, John. "Ozone Layer," NBC Evening News. Dec 3, 2000. Gibson, Charles; Blakemore, Bill. "Environment/Ozone Layer," ABC Evening News. Aug 22, 2006. Reasoner, Harry; Stout, Bill. "Supersonic Transport Vs. Concorde," CBS Evening News. Jan 1, 1969. Quinn, Jane Bryant; Rather, Dan. "Ozone Layer Depletion," CBS Evening News. Oct 20, 1986 Chancellor, John; Neal, Roy. "Special Report (Ozone)," NBC Evening News. Sep 24, 1975. Benton, Nelson; Cronkite, Walter. "Ozone/Fluorocarbons/ National Academy of Sciences Study," CBS Evening News. Sept 14, 1976. Brokaw, Tom; Hager, Robert. "Assignment Earth (Ozone Layer)," NBC Evening News. Feb 3, 1992.

Our theme music was composed by Zach Young.

Additional music courtesy of the Audio Network.

They're at the grocery checkout. They kill cancer cells. They're in pointers that drive cats crazy and in the fiber networks that connect us to the internet. Lasers are so ubiquitous it's hard to imagine a world without them. So you'd think we would know who the inventor was, right? Turns out it's not so easy. There's the guy who wrote down the initial idea, two other guys who got a patent for it, and then another guy who actually built the first laser. We spoke to Nick Taylor, author of Laser: The Inventor, the Noble Laureate, and the Thirty-Year Patent War about this story and what it tells us about how inventions happen.

Hosts: Alexis Pedrick and Elizabeth Berry Drago Senior Producer: Mariel Carr Producer and Reporter: Rigoberto Hernandez Audio Engineer: Catherine Girardeau

Our theme music was composed by Zach Young.

Additional music courtesy of the Audio Network.

Yoga pants are having a moment. And while they're not new, they've moved beyond the gym and yoga studio into nearly every corner of our lives.

This so-called athleisure wear trend has made a lot of people happy. "Once I wore [yoga pants], I never wore jeans again if I could help it," says Sage Roundtree, a yoga instructor from North Carolina. But as comfy as the trend is, it has made a lot of people very unhappy—including the entire cotton industry. That's because performance athletic wear isn't made out of cotton. It's made of synthetic fibers such as Lycra, polyester, and spandex. As demand for athleisure wear grows, demand for cotton shrinks.

Luckily, cotton has a few tricks up its sleeve to keep consumers interested—because this is only the latest episode in a decades-long rivalry between cotton and synthetic fibers.

Hosts: Alexis Pedrick and Elizabeth Berry Drago Reporter and producer: > Facebook | Blog"> James Morrison Senior Producer: Mariel Carr Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez

Our theme music was composed by Zach Young.

Additional music courtesy of the Audio Network.

Every aspiring chemist has heard of Boyle's law—the equation that relates the pressure of a gas to its volume. But even if you know about Robert Boyle himself, it's not likely you've heard of his sister, even though she probably talked him through many of his ideas.

Katherine Jones, Lady Ranelagh (1615–1691), had a lifelong influence on her famous younger brother, natural philosopher Robert Boyle. In her lifetime she was recognized by many for her scientific knowledge, but her story was almost lost to time.

This episode is a collaboration with Poncie Rutsch, the creator and host of Babes of Science. Poncie interviewed CHF's own Michelle DiMeo, a historian who's writing a book about Lady Ranelagh. Babes of Science is a podcast that tries to answer two questions: Who are the women who changed the trajectory of science? And why has it taken us so long to recognize their work?

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Bob KenworthyReporter and producer: Poncie Rutsch Senior Producer: Mariel Carr Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez

Our theme music was composed by Zach Young.

Additional music courtesy of the Free Music Archive:

Day Into Night by Rho

Daydream Shelshock by Wolf Asylum

Am I The Devil by YEYEY

History Explains Itself by The Losers

Like Swimming by Broke For Free

Insatiable Toad by Blue Dot Sessions

One And by Broke For Free

Modulation of the Spirit by Little Glass Men

Melt by Broke For Free

Eleanor by The Losers

I Am A Man Who Will Fight For Your Honor by Chris Zabriskie

Tidal Wave by YEYEY

As you ponder which shiny new gadgets to put in your children's stockings this holiday season, beware of the story of the Abbott family, whose lives were forever changed after a little too much screen time.

Distillations brings you a live performance of Ray Bradbury's short story "The Veldt." Originally titled "The World the Children Made," it's a science-fiction tale about the dangers of our growing overdependence on technology.

"People ask me to predict the future when all I want to do is prevent it," Bradbury said. "We have too many cellphones. We've got too many internets. We have got to get rid of those machines."

Special thanks to Mechanical Theater and the Hear Again Radio Project for the live performance.

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Bob Kenworthy Senior Producer: Mariel Carr Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez

Our theme music was composed by Zach Young.

Dream(instrumental) by Chan Wai Fat, courtesy of the Free Music Archive.

It's one of the most bizarre episodes in American food history: when butter and margarine were at war. What you choose to spread on your toast might seem like a boring subject, but it turns out to be fascinating and sometimes hilarious. Margarine's history began with French emperor Napoleon III, a French chemist, and some sheep's stomachs, and went on to include heated courtroom debates, our first federal laws regulating food, and outlaws smuggling faux butter across state lines.

The spreads have competed for more than a hundred years, and public preferences shift each time our understanding of health science changes. In this episode of Distillations we learn about the history of butter and margarine and explore the distinctly American debates they inspired involving food, health, science, and regulation.

Hosts: Elisabeth Berry Drago and Alexis Pedrick Producer: Mariel Carr Associate Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez Audio Engineer: Catherine Girardeau

Reading for this episode:

The Dairy Crisis: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40716626 Letters From Our Readers, The Wisconsin Magazine of History: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4636978 The "Oleo Wars": Wisconsin's Fight Over the Demon Spread, The Wisconsin Magazine of History:http://www.jstor.org/stable/4636942 Bogus Butter: An Analysis of the 1886 Congressional Debates on Oleomargarine Legislation: http://scholarworks.uvm.edu/graddis/36/ "If It's Yellow, It Must be Butter": Margarine Regulation in North America Since 1886, The Journal of Economic History: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2566555 What's Cooking, Uncle Sam? The National Archives Foundation: https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/whats-cooking/

Special thanks to our voiceover artists, Hillary Mohaupt, Roger Eardley-Pryor, and Sarah Reisert

Our theme music was composed by Zach Young.

Baby horses and giraffes walk soon after they're born, and they can feed and take care of themselves pretty quickly, too. A one-year-old person, on the other hand, is basically helpless. But humans go on to live much longer than most other mammals, and scientists have long been trying to piece together why this is the case.

One theory, called the grandmother hypothesis, claims that grandmas are the key to why humans live so long. Unlike most other species, human females live long past their childbearing years and so can help raise their grandchildren, allowing their daughters (or daughters-in-law) to have another baby before the first one can take care of itself.

As warm and fuzzy as this idea sounds, it turns out to be pretty controversial. In this episode of Distillations we explore the grandmother hypothesis and find out what the debate is all about.

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Bob Kenworthy Producer: Mariel Carr Associate Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez

Our theme music was composed by Zach Young.

Though they lived decades apart, Adolphe Dessauer and Abdelwahhab Azzawi share similar stories. They were both esteemed physicians who faced violence and persecution in their home countries. They both sought refuge abroad and found safety, only to find themselves facing a new struggle—getting permission to practice medicine in their new homes.

Dessauer, a Jewish doctor, fled Germany for the United States in 1938. Azzawi, a 36-year-old ophthalmologist from Syria, found asylum in Germany in 2015. Both men's lives were spared through the generosity of their new countries, but they had to struggle to give back in the most meaningful way they could—by sharing their medical expertise.

In 2016 every American Nobel laureate in science was an immigrant. And it wasn't just that year; U.S. winners often are born abroad. Yet as global an enterprise as science has become, navigating bureaucracy and straddling boundaries seems to be as difficult in the 21st century as during World War II.

00:13 Intro 01:35 The German doctor 14:28 The Syrian doctor

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Bob Kenworthy Producer: Mariel Carr Associate Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez Reporter: Catherine Girardeau Audio Engineer: Catherine Girardeau

Our theme music was composed by Zach Young. Additional music is courtesy of the Audio Network.

There are no parents in the world who want to see their child sick. Often the illness is no big deal—you follow doctor's orders and your kid gets better soon. But what do you do when your child is really sick, and it's because of decisions the founders of your religion made more than 300 years ago? And what do you do when the medical solutions seem to run counter to that very same religion?

This is the dilemma faced by many Amish and Mennonite parents in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, whose children suffer from genetic diseases at rates exponentially higher than the rest of the population. These Plain People, as they call themselves, typically eschew technology. But 30 years ago they chose to step out of character and embrace the latest advances in genomic medicine to help save their children.

Reporter Kyrie Greenberg spent almost a year getting to know some of these families, and she produced this podcast with us.

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Bob Kenworthy Producer: Mariel Carr

Associate Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez

Reporter: Kyrie Greenberg

Original music composed by Zach Young. Additional music courtesy of the Audio Network.

On April 22, 2017, more than one million people in 600 cities around the world took to the streets in the name of science. Many were scientists themselves, and quite a few donned lab coats. Some were protesting for the first time. It was an unusual sight perhaps, but science has never been immune to politics.

"If we could imagine angels doing science maybe it wouldn't be political," says Liz Lopatto, science editor of the technology site the Verge, "But since it's humans, it's inescapable."

Throughout the past century quite a few scientists have taken up political causes, but the tide of politics and science ebbs and flows, from the labs to the streets and back again. Now, after a period of relative quiet it seems to be flowing again. But this time it's different. Sociologist Kelly Moore says, "I don't know of any period in American history when scientists have felt the need to collectively defend science as a public good."

00:32 March for science 02:14 Science as a noun, science as a verb 04:55 Science and politics throughout history

Hosts:Michal Meyer and Bob Kenworthy Producer: Mariel Carr Associate Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez Additional Reporting and Production: Kyrie Greenberg Audio Engineer: Dan Powell

Original music composed by Zach Young. Additional music courtesy of the Audio Network.

There was a time when tattoos were taboo, and you thought long and hard before getting one. Today 20 percent of American adults are inked. Tattoos just don't carry the stigma they once did—unless it's a particular kind of tattoo, in a particular place on the body.

Fortunately, as our penchant for getting tattoos has grown, so has our ability to get rid of them. In the 1960s researchers started experimenting with lasers to remove tattoos, and since then the technology has dramatically improved. Now we can erase our past, whether it's a sailor's bad decision from overseas or a gang identifier that prevents its owner from getting a job—and could even get him killed.

Sociologist and CHF research fellow Joseph Klett traces the modern history of tattoo removal through the stories of his father—a retired sailor—and ex-gang members in California.

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Bob Kenworthy Reporter: Joseph Klett Producer: Mariel Carr Associate producer: Rigoberto Hernandez Additional production by Kyrie Greenberg Audio engineer: Dan PowellVoiceover artist: David Dault

Original music composed by Dan Powell.

Most of us are content to use our existing five senses to see, hear, smell, taste, and touch our way through the world. But an increasing number of people called biohackers are not satisfied with watching the everyday brilliance of a sunset or petting a silky kitten. They want infrared vision and electromagnetic fingertips.

"Why wouldn't I want to add one more sense to the ones I already have and enjoy so much? The ability to feel just a little bit more?" Nic Fox asked reporter Catherine Girardeau. Fox has a device embedded in his chest that vibrates when he faces magnetic north.

To understand more about these would-be cyborgs we turned to Kara Platoni, author of We Have the Technology: How Biohackers, Foodies, Physicians and Scientists Are Transforming Human Perception, One Sense at a Time. Platoni is a science reporter and a lecturer at University of California, Berkeley's Graduate School of Journalism. She describes how many biohackers feel the future hasn't gotten here fast enough. They're ready to be cyborgs now.

00:03 Intro 03:10 The North Sense 13:12 Interview with author Kara Platoni

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Bob Kenworthy Guest: Kara Platoni Reporter: Catherine Girardeau Producer: Mariel Carr Associate Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez

Music courtesy of the Audio Network.

For as long as humans have been around they've worried about their smell. "That's why we've had perfumes for as long as we've had people," says Cari Casteel, a CHF research fellow studying the history of deodorant. But, Casteel says, "it wasn't until the late 19th, early 20th century that the technology and the chemistry catches up to what people want."

Today most Americans don't give a second thought to using deodorant. In fact, some 90% of the population slathers the stuff on. But in the late 19th and early 20th centuries deodorants and antiperspirants were new, and their makers had to convince potential customers (all women) that perfumes alone weren't cutting it and that their body odor and perspiration were unacceptable. They did so by preying on women's insecurities, an approach later used successfully on men.

In this episode we explore some of the funny, disturbing, sexist, and quirky advertisements from deodorant's history and discover that today's commercials are strangely similar to those of the past.

00:01 Intro 01:20 Odorono ad 03:57 The history and science of deodorant 09:55 Old ads vs. new ads

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Bob Kenworthy Guest: Cari Casteel Producer: Mariel Carr Associate Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez Additional Production by Kyrie Greenberg

Music courtesy of the Audio Network.

We all know hydration is important to health, but many people find water boring to drink. Juice and Coke aren't boring, but they aren't very healthy either. One way to transform water into a more exciting drink is to add bubbles. For centuries carbonated water from natural springs was used as a medicine. Now lifestyle and health concerns have combined to drive fizzy water's renewed popularity.

Join us as we unpack the long history of carbonated water, from natural mineral springs, to the invention of artificial carbonation by a radical 18th-century chemist, to the fading tradition of seltzer deliverymen in New York City.

00:01 Intro 00:24 The rise of fizzy water 04:30 Seltzer Boys 06:40 What's the difference between seltzer, mineral water, and club soda? 08:22 The history of carbonated water 11:55 Seltzer and health

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Bob Kenworthy Producer: Mariel CarrAssociate Producer: Rigoberto HernandezReporter: Rigoberto HernandezAdditional production by Kyrie Greenberg

Special thanks to Alex Gomberg and Brooklyn Seltzer Boys

Music courtesy of the Audio Network.

The sports bra is omnipresent in today's sports landscape. But the current iteration of this nifty item is less than 40 years old, and it arrived with a serendipitous origin story.

For this episode of Distillations we talked to Lisa Lindahl, an entrepreneur from Vermont, who in 1979 patented what was to become the modern-day sports bra. It's a story about a runner who wanted running to be more comfortable. "It was the right product at the right time. It really struck a chord for so many women," says Lindahl. "This product came into being because it was something I wanted."

We also talked to our museum team about their new exhibition, Second Skin: The Science of Stretch, and the roles stretch fabrics play in health and sports. Christy Schneider, exhibits project manager at the Museum at CHF, says it's all about getting the body you want, whether you want to dance all night or run a marathon. "How do you that?" asks Schneider. "You clothe it in a second skin."

00:05 Intro00:32 'The Sports Bra Seen Round the World' 05:40 A brief history of the sports bra10:53 The technology and science behind the sports bra11:50 Why stretch fabric matters 15:20 Conclusion

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Bob Kenworthy Guests: Brandi Chastain, Lisa Lindahl, Gillian Maguire, and Christy Schneider Reporter: Rigoberto Hernandez Producer: Mariel Carr Associate Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez Audio Engineer: Seth G. Samuel

Music courtesy of the Audio Network.

Our producer is pregnant. For the past nine months people have asked what her birth plan is, which to her seems like asking what kind of weather she had planned for her wedding day. "All of a sudden my life was full of these terms: natural, medicated, doula, epidural, and it quickly became clear that there was a great debate—and I was supposed to choose a side."

We wanted to know when this controversy started, and why comedian Amy Schumer is joking about sea-turtle births. So we talked to Lara Freidenfelds, a historian of sexuality, reproduction, and women's health in America, and learned some surprising things about our nation's early childbirth practices.

Freidenfelds also shared her views about why a growing number of women are opting for unmedicated births, while Amy Tuteur, a retired obstetrician and the author of Push Back: Guilt in the Age of Natural Parenting, tells us that once upon a time all births were natural—and a lot of mothers and babies died.

00:01 Inside Amy Schumer: "It's Better for the Baby" 01:00 Intro 02:32 Feature story: "I Can't Get To You" 11:25 Amy Tuteur and Lara Freidenfelds discuss the history and controversy behind natural childbirth

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Bob Kenworthy Guests: Amy Tuteur and Lara Freidenfelds Reporter: Kristin Gourlay Producer: Mariel Carr Associate Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez Audio Engineer: Seth G. Samuel

Music courtesy of the Audio Network.

Over the past year we've brought you stories about tacos, taxidermy, and DDT. But at the same time we've been thinking about and researching medicine—specifically, how outsiders to the field have helped change the ways doctors practice. Join us to find out how philosophers, transgender patients, and Jehovah's Witnesses have influenced health care in the United States over the past few decades.

00:04 Intro 01:41 Transgender and intersex patients 06:51 Bioethicists 09:55 Jehovah's Witnesses

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Bob Kenworthy Guest: Mariel Carr Producer: Mariel Carr Associate Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez

"Nature Kid" by Podington Bear, courtesy of the Free Music Archive. Additional music courtesy of the Audio Network.

Now that the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs recognizes post-traumatic stress disorder as a significant issue among veterans, they've uncovered another problem—there aren't enough therapists to go around. Virtual reality experts at the University of Southern California have a solution: robots. Reporter Anna Stitt explains how advocates see these "therapy bots" as enhancing the field of therapy; they don't tire out, they don't need a salary, and patients are often more honest with them than human therapists. The only problem? Some people are worried that these therapy bots will one day replace humans.

Fears of artificial intelligence aren't new, but they do seem increasingly common. Elon Musk declared that creating artificial intelligence is akin to "summoning the demon." And Hollywood has done a solid job of convincing us that we're approaching an age of artificial superintelligence—when machines' capabilities will greatly exceed those of humans. We turned to philosopher and University of California, Berkeley professor John Searle to get his take on how realistic these concerns are. He says he takes the threat just as seriously as if someone said "shoes have been walked on for centuries. Any day now, they might come out of the closet and walk all over us."

00:04 Intro 02:06 Human-Centered Therapy....with Robots 19:56 John Searle interview

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Bob Kenworthy Guest: John Searle Reporter: Anna Stitt Producer: Mariel Carr Associate Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez

Music courtesy of the Audio Network.

Have you noticed any antlered rabbits mounted on the wall of your local coffee shop? Or maybe some geese with butterfly wings? That's because taxidermy has made a comeback. Our producer, Mariel Carr, wanted to know why, so she spent a few months exploring the alternative—or rogue—taxidermy scene in Philadelphia. Rogue taxidermy takes an artistic approach to the traditional craft. It combines materials, and even animals, in unconventional ways. And it seems to involve a fair amount of glitter.

Meet Beth Beverly, a young taxidermist; John Whitenight, an eccentric collector of Victorian taxidermy; and the polar bears and gorillas at the Academy of Natural Sciences. Together they explain taxidermy's long history of combining art and science, and describe the role arsenic played in taxidermy's rise to prominence in the 19th century.

00:04 Intro 01:13 This Is Not Your Great-Grandfather's Taxidermy

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Bob Kenworthy Reporter: Mariel CarrProducer: Mariel Carr Associate Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez

"Boop" and "Climbing the Mountain" courtesy of Podington Bear and the Free Music Archive.

Additional music courtesy of the Audio Network.

We're guessing you know who Albert Einstein and Isaac Newton are, and maybe you're even familiar with Linus Pauling or Roald Hoffmann. But it turns out that a lot of people can't name a single female scientist besides Marie Curie. Exasperated by this fact, radio producer Poncie Rutsch made a podcast she titled Babes of Science. The show profiles accomplished scientists from history who also happened to be women.

We became such fans of the show that we decided to create a special Babes of Science and Distillations collaborative episode. In it Rutsch profiles Barbara McClintock, a cytogeneticist who discovered transposons, or "jumping genes," and whose radical ideas made it hard for her to gain acceptance in the field.

00:04 Intro 01:46 Babes of Science: Barbara McClintock 14:37 Interview with Poncie Rutsch

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Bob Kenworthy Guest: Poncie Rutsch Reporter: Poncie RutschProducer: Mariel Carr Associate Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez

These songs courtesy of Free Music Archive:

A Way to Get By, Scott Grattonpiano lesson, The RebelGolden, Little Glass MenLittle Strings, The LosersDivider, Chris ZabriskieModulation of the Spirit, Little Glass MenSpontaneous Existence, Little Glass MenPieces of the Present, Scott Gratton

Additional music courtesy of the Audio Network.

When you bite into a taco, quesadilla, or anything else involving a traditionally made corn tortilla, your taste buds get to experience the results of an ancient chemical process called nixtamalization. The technique dates to around 1500 BCE and involves cooking corn kernels with an alkaline substance, like lime or wood ash, which makes the dough softer, tastier, and much more nutritious.

Only in the 20th century did scientists figure out the secret of nixtamalization—the process releases niacin, one of the essential B vitamins. Our guest, archaeologist and nixtamalization expert Rachel Briggs, says that the historical chemical process transformed corn from a regular food into a viable dietary staple, one that cultures around the world continue to rely on for many of their calories. Without nixtamalization Mesoamerican civilizations like the Maya and the Aztec would not have survived, let alone flourished.

Benjamin Miller and Christina Martinez are the only chefs in Philadelphia making their tortillas from scratch. Our associate producer, Rigoberto Hernandez, visited the couple at their traditional Mexican restaurant in South Philadelphia to find out why they're so dedicated to handmade tortillas—and to see the nixtamalization process in action.

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Bob Kenworthy Guest: Rachel Briggs Reporter: Rigoberto HernandezProducer: Mariel Carr Associate Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez

Music courtesy of the Audio Network

Everyone knows blood is powerful. The ancient Greeks realized it, Jesus understood it, Dracula certainly recognized it, and your doctor still knows it today. And everybody knows, says hematologist and historian of medicine Jacalyn Duffin, that if we lose a lot of blood, we’re going to die.

Jehovah’s Witnesses’ beliefs have led them to refuse blood transfusions—to the consternation of many inside the medical profession. But the religious group still wants medical care, says reporter Alex Ashley, and their advocacy has helped propel a new movement in medicine in which doctors perform surgeries without transfusing blood. Remarkably, it has turned out better for everyone, suggesting that religion and medicine might be less at odds than they sometimes seem.

00:04 Intro01:35 Feature: When a Pint of Sweat Saves a Gallon of Blood14:04 Blood is powerful17:25 Blood is religious18:40 Blood is a miracle21:45 Blood is dangerous24:35 Conclusion

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Bob KenworthyGuest: Jacalyn DuffinReporter: Alex AshleyProducer: Mariel CarrAssociate Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez

Music courtesy of the Audio Network. "Power in the Blood" courtesy of Shiloh Worship Music.

Scientists experimented with skin and organ transplants for a long time before they finally met with success in the mid-20th century. Now surgeons are expert at performing transplants. The only problem? There aren’t enough organs to go around, which creates some serious ethical dilemmas.

First, reporter Dalia Mortada takes us to Tel Aviv, Israel, where a dialysis patient waiting for a new kidney is running out of patience. Conflicting religious interpretations have prevented many Israelis from signing up to become organ donors. This has created a serious supply-and-demand problem, leading many desperate patients to the black market. Mortada tells us how this trend is slowly changing and talks to the doctors, rabbis, and bioethicists behind the shift.

Then we talk to American bioethicists Art Caplan and Robert Baker about the pitfalls of the U.S. donation system. “You sign up when you go to Motor Vehicles,” Caplan says, “which may not be the ultimately wonderful place to make [these] decisions, other than the fact that you may wait there long enough to die there, in which case they can probably get your organs.”

00:04 Introduction01:13 Waiting for a kidney in Tel Aviv10:25 Why do we need Bioethics?

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Bob KenworthyGuests: Art Caplan and Robert BakerReporter: Dalia MortadaProducer: Mariel CarrAssociate Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez

Music courtesy of the Audio Network.

Americans have had a long, complicated relationship with the pesticide DDT, or dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane, if you want to get fancy. First we loved it, then we hated it, then we realized it might not be as bad as we thought. But we’ll never restore it to its former glory. And couldn’t you say the same about America’s once-favorite pop star?

We had a hunch that the usual narrative about DDT’s rise and fall left a few things out, so we talked to historian and CHF fellow Elena Conis. She has been discovering little-known pieces of this story one dusty letter at a time.

But first our associate producer Rigoberto Hernandez checks out some of CHF’s own DDT cans—that’s right, we have a DDT collection—and talks to the retired exterminator who donated them.

00:03 Introduction01:26 DDT's Rise06:56 DDT's Fall13:24 DDT's Complicated Legacy

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Bob KenworthyGuest: Elena ConisProducer: Mariel CarrAssociate Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez

Music courtesy of the Audio Network.

2015 was a good year for outer space. Star Wars: Episode VII came out, NASA started hiring astronauts again, SpaceX successfully launched and returned a rocket, and the U.S. Congress passed the SPACE Act of 2015—a bill that gives any American who extracts resources from an asteroid legal rights to the bounty they reap. Since no one has yet mined an asteroid this legislation might seem premature, but it’s essential to the future of two Silicon Valley asteroid mining companies. That’s right, they already exist. They’re just waiting for humans to start colonizing space.

Reporters Katie Gilbert and Annie Costakistalk to Daniel Faber, the founder of Deep Space Industries, about his dream: to build the space equivalent of Home Depot, as well as fueling stations and manufacturing plants. They also explain a few of the untested theories behind asteroid mining.

We wanted to know more about the history of space dreaming and space colonies, so we talked to Patrick McCray, a historian of science and technology and the author of The Visioneers: How a Group of Elite Scientists Pursued Space Colonies, Nanotechnologies, and a Limitless Future. He says utopian space visions have long filled the heads of scientifically minded dreamers, especially when life on Earth isn’t going so well.

00:03 Introduction01:26 Will asteroid mining save us?12:40 Who were the visioneers?

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Bob KenworthyGuest: Patrick McCrayReporters: Katie Gilbert and Annie CostakisProducer: Mariel CarrAssociate Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez

"Boop" By Podington Bear, courtesy of the Free Music Archive.

Additional music courtesy of the Audio Network.

Several years ago historian of medicine Alice Dreger found herself in a room full of intersexed people, individuals with reproductive or sexual anatomy that is neither typically female nor male. Dreger noticed something strange: many of them had teeth that were in bad shape. She soon learned that many of them had endured such traumatic experiences with doctors that they wouldn't go near anyone in a white coat, including dentists.

We were astonished by this story, so we asked Dreger to tell us more. She joined us for our December podcast alongside Eric Vilain, a medical geneticist and director of the Center for Gender-based Biology at UCLA. While intersex, transgender, and transsexual issues have recently entered the mainstream, our guests explain that there have always been those whose anatomy or identity prevents them from fitting neatly into the categories of male or female. And even with this newfound exposure, tensions continue to exist for them all.

But first we'll hear about the experiences of a transgender couple desperate to conceive a child, but who struggled to find a willing doctor. Mariel Carr visits them at home in Philadelphia, where they're adapting to life with an infant.

00:03 Introduction 01:26 Feature story: "The Pregnant Man" 14:48 Interview with Alice Dreger and Eric Vilain

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Bob Kenworthy Guests: Alice Dreger and Eric Vilain Reporter: Mariel Carr Producer: Mariel CarrAssociate Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez

Music courtesy of the Audio Network.

Hackers. Spies. Secrets. This is the menacing language of industrial espionage. But how easy is it to plunder a company for its ideas? Not very, says our guest, Douglas O’Reagan, a historian of science and technology. Throughout history, O’Reagan argues, stealing trade secrets has proven more complicated than lifting a blueprint or section of computer code. What makes a company successful is usually much harder to grasp.

But first we look at how one company is trying to pass on the skills and secrets responsible for its success. Reporter Susanne Gietl visits the small Bavarian town of Ingolstadt, headquarters of German automaker Audi. There she finds hundreds of Mexican workers learning skills, secrets, and the “German way” to build cars so they can bring that knowledge back to Mexico.

Join us for a trip to the murky world of technology transfer.

00:04 Introduction01:40 Feature story: Learning the "German way" 10:20 Interview with Douglas O'Reagan

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Bob KenworthyGuests: Douglas O'ReaganReporter: Susanne GietlProducer: Mariel CarrAssociate Producer: Rigoberto Hernandez

Music courtesy of the Audio Network.

"Odyssey" by Kevin MacLeod Licensed under Creative Commons: By Attribution 3.0

Celebrities, politicians, and scientists have fiercely debated the safety of using genetically modified organisms, or GMOs, in food. It remains to be seen whether GMO labeling becomes mandatory in the United States, but there’s no doubt that the “GMO-free” sticker is garnering the prestige and premium prices already reaped by the labels “organic” and “gluten-free.” But what’s the big fuss? And how did this great GMO debate begin?To find out Distillations goes to the soy and corn fields of Iowa where reporter Amy Mayer hears the perspectives of a few Midwesterners, including two farmers who have found a lucrative niche for the GMO-free crops they’re growing.

Then, we’ll talk with plant geneticist Pamela C. Ronald and organic farmer Raoul Adamchak. Together they wrote Tomorrow’s Table: Organic Farming, Genetics, and the Future of Food.And they’re married—to each other.

Ten years ago Hurricanes Katrina and Rita tore into the Gulf Coast and displaced more than one million residents. For many of these people, trailers provided by the Federal Emergency Management Agency became their homes.

But many of the new occupants soon found it hard to breathe, suffering flulike symptoms, stinging eyes, and nosebleeds. The culprit was formaldehyde, which emanated from the hastily assembled, substandard materials used to make the trailers.

A decade after the storms Distillations follows CHF researcher and medical anthropologist Nick Shapiro as he searches for the remaining FEMA trailers. His search takes him to the oil fields of North Dakota, where a different kind of housing crisis is taking place.

Most of us are familiar with the achievements of Galileo and Newton, but who were their peers? And what was it like to practice science in the 16th and 17th centuries? Come geek out with us as we travel back in time and explore what the world was like when science and the supernatural were not so far apart.

We talk to two historians of science, Deborah Harkness and James Voelkel. Harkness is the author of The Jewel House: Elizabethan London and the Scientific Revolution as well asthe All Soul’s Trilogy, a popular fantasy series filled with witches, vampires, demons, scientists, and historians. Voelkel is the curator of rare books at CHF and an expert on Johannes Kepler, a 17th-century astronomer, mathematician, and astrologer.

Though we were unable to time travel for this show (much to our dismay), we did get to visit the Making and Knowing Project’s laboratory at Columbia University, where a group of historians of science are reconstructing a 16th-century workshop and re-creating recipes from an anonymous craftsperson’s manuscript. And we made this video.

SHOW CLOCK:

00:05 Introduction

01:10 Interview with Deborah Harkness and James Voelkel

CREDITS:

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Bob Kenworthy

Guests: Deborah Harkness and James Voelkel

Producer & Editor: Mariel Carr

Music courtesy of the Audio Network.

This is Distillations’s 200th episode, and we’re celebrating! We pored through hundreds of shows and pieced together some of the funniest, grossest, and most surprising moments in Distillations history.

Still chuckling from episode 166, "Alchemy After Dark," where CHF’s rare book curator Jim Voelkel cries from laughter while reading a steamy alchemical passage from yesteryear? Still trying to forget the body-cheese experiment from episode 156, "Hard to Stomach"? Or maybe you’re still perplexed about how a Viagra tablet might wind up in your herbal supplement, as explained in episode 197, "Fads and Faith"?

We visit these moments and many more. Thanks for listening, and we hope you’ll join us for the next 200 shows!

CREDITS:

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Bob Kenworthy

Producer & Editor: Mariel Carr

Music courtesy of the Audio Network.

Mother Nature can do a lot of damage. Tornadoes, hurricanes, floods, and droughts destroy landscapes and ruin lives. But what happens when humans are the ones creating these disasters? This episode of Distillations explores the many ways humans have provoked nature’s destructive forces purposefully and inadvertently through history.

Our journey begins in Oklahoma, a state that now has more earthquakes than California. Reporter Anna Stitt talks to the people affected by these new quakes and finds out how their lives have changed.

Then we talk to historian Jacob Darwin Hamblin about his latest book, Arming Mother Nature: The Birth of Catastrophic Environmentalism. He tells us how Cold War military planners sought to use the environment as a weapon and in the process discovered how vulnerable our planet really is.

00:03 Introduction

01:20 Oklahoma, the Earthquake State

11:07 Interview with Jacob Darwin Hamblin

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Bob Kenworthy

Guest: Jacob Darwin Hamblin

Reporter: Anna Stitt

Producer & Editor: Mariel Carr

Music courtesy of the Audio Network.

Check out Distillations magazine at distillations.org, where you'll find articles, videos, and our podcast.

The early days of neuroscience relied on tragedy to strike—a rabies infection, a botched lobotomy—before doctors could peek inside the brains of humans. Today advanced technology, such as the functional MRI, helps scientists study brains (and healthy ones at that) far more easily. The revelations they’re making call into question conventional ideas of maturity and our capacity for free will.

The story begins at a unique laboratory at Michigan Technological University, called the Mind Music Machine, where reporter Allison Mills talks to a cognitive scientist who’s trying to develop technology that can interpret our emotions.

Then we talk about the history of neuroscience with Sam Kean, a regular contributor to Distillations magazine and author of the recent book The Tale of the Dueling Neurosurgeons.Frances Jensen, a neuroscientist and author of The Teenage Brain, brings us into the present and explains the science behind why teenagers drive their parents crazy.

00:03 Introduction

02:01 The Mind Music Machine

12:38 Sam Kean on the history of neuroscience

28:22 Frances Jensen on the teenage brain

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Bob Kenworthy

Guests: Sam Kean and Frances Jensen

Reporter: Allison Mills

Producer & Editor: Mariel Carr

Music courtesy of the Audio Network.

Check out Distillations magazine at distillations.org, where you'll find articles, videos, and our podcast.

In 2014 the United States had 650 reported cases of measles, a disease made preventable by a vaccine introduced 30 years ago. The majority of these measles victims were children whose parents chose not to vaccinate them. Meanwhile at least 85,000 dietary supplements line the shelves of GNC and other “big box” chains, as well as smaller health food stores. Even though the FDA cannot assure the safety or effectiveness of any of these products before they're sold, they enjoy widespread popularity in the United States. This episode of Distillations explores what connects these two issues.

Our journey starts in Shanghai, where reporter Rebecca Kanthor investigates a strange fashion trend among pregnant women—a special apron meant to protect its wearers from the harms of electromagnetic radiation.

Then we talk with Paul Offit, an infectious disease pediatrician at Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia and author of Bad Faith: When Religious Belief Undermines Modern Medicine,and Catherine Price, author of Vitamania: Our Obsessive Quest for Nutritional Perfection,about what drives these fads.Our guests suggest that faith, a desire for easy answers, and a lack of trust in medical science all come into play.

SHOW CLOCK:

00:03 Introduction

01:40 Pregnancy Aprons in Shanghai

11:33 Interview with Catherine Price and Paul Offit

CREDITS:

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Bob Kenworthy

Guests: Catherine Price and Paul Offit

Reporter: Rebecca Kanthor

Producer & Editor: Mariel Carr

Music courtesy of the Audio Network.

Check out Distillations magazine at distillations.org, where you'll find articles, videos, and our podcast.

Some technologies flash in the pan so quickly they hardly leave a trace (Google Glass anyone?); while others seem to stick around long past their use by date. And still other creations appear to be gone for good, only to make a comeback within a niche—and likely nostalgic—community. We set out to explore the rhymes and reasons behind these ebbs and flows of technological innovation and obsolescence.

First we go to a place where digital nostalgia is alive and well: a vintage video arcade outside of Chicago. Reporter Colleen Pellissier tells the story of one man who dedicates his life to keeping these old and cranky machines running.

Then we talk to Ben Gross, a historian of technology and a fellow at CHF. He shares his love of the long-forgotten video disc and explains why nothing is obvious when it comes to the successes and failures of technologies.

SHOW CLOCK:

00:03 Introduction01:28 The Galloping Ghost Arcade08:50 Interview with Ben Gross

CREDITS:

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Bob KenworthyGuest: Ben GrossReporter: Colleen PellissierProducer and Editor: Mariel CarrMusic courtesy of the Audio Network and the Free Music Archive.

Check out Distillations magazine at distillations.org, where you'll find articles, videos, and our podcast.

In case you hadn’t noticed, during our short time on Earth we humans have created a lot of stuff. Some of it is life-altering, like the device you’re looking at right now, and some of it is pretty silly, like those plastic, banana-shaped containers made for holding bananas. Regardless of their value, these objects all have one thing in common: one day they will become trash. For all the time we spend creating these wonders, we don’t devote much energy to thinking about what happens when their intended life-cycles run out. This episode of Distillations traces the history of trash, consumerism, and municipal garbage collection in the United States, and explores what the future holds.

First, reporter Daniel Gross tells us the origin story of kitty litter, an ingenious consumer product that transformed a natural resource straight into trash.

Then we talk with Carl Zimring, an American environmental historian and Associate Professor of Sustainability Studies at the Pratt Institute in Brooklyn, New York. He describes the early days of garbage collection and tells us why we need to start designing for sustainability.

SHOW CLOCK:

00:03 Introduction

01:30 Kitty Littering: Carbon Paw Prints

10:57 Interview with Carl Zimring

CREDITS:

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Bob Kenworthy

Guest: Carl Zimring

Reporter: Daniel Gross

Producer & Editor: Mariel Carr

MUSIC:

Cantina Rag, Jackson F. Smith - Free Music Archive

Moondots and Polka Beams, Podington Bear - Free Music Archive

La Giraffa di Yael, A Smile for Timbuctu - Free Music Archive

Additional songs courtesy of the Audio Network.

Check out Distillations magazine at distillations.org, where you'll find articles, videos, and our podcast.

Thirty years ago an HIV diagnosis was a death sentence. Today, sophisticated drug cocktails known as highly active antiretroviral therapy, or HAART, have dramatically changed the fates of people with the disease. They can now live with a chronic manageable disease instead of dying from a fatal one. Yet in many ways we’re treading water: each year the U.S. sees around 50,000 new HIV cases, and estimates show that 20-25% of these people don’t know they’re infected. And, while the drugs are effective, many people throughout the world can’t afford them.

So should we consider our response to HIV a complete success story? This episode of Distillations tries to find the answer.

Our journey begins in San Francisco’s Castro District, the epicenter of the city’s HIV epidemic in the 1980s. Reporter Andrew Bowen talks to AIDS activist Tez Anderson, who started an organization to combat AIDS Survivor Syndrome.

Then we talk to Dr. Mark W. Kline and Andrew P. Rice, a physician and a virologist who have been working on HIV since the 1980s, and ask them if we can claim victory.

SHOW CLOCK:

00:03 Introduction

01:49 Surviving Survival: Tez Anderson's Story

12:06 Interview with Mark W. Kline and Andrew P. Rice

CREDITS:

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Bob Kenworthy

Guests: Dr. Mark W. Kline and Andrew P. Rice

Reporter: Andrew Bowen

Producer & Editor: Mariel Carr

We recorded our conversation with Mark W. Kline and Andrew P. Rice during CHF’s 2014 Chao Symposium, “Can We Meet the Challenge of HIV/AIDS?” Special thanks to Houston Public Media for hosting us in their studio.

Music courtesy of Audio Network.

Check out Distillations magazine at distillations.org, where you'll find articles, videos, and our podcast.

At the beginning of the 19th century women in the United States had an average of seven or eight children. By 1900 they had only three or four, and today 35% of Americans have exactly two children. How did this happen? This episode of Distillations explores the role technology has played in reproduction, and how it has affected the ethical and moral landscape that surrounds it.

First, reporter Allison Quantz talks to her sister to find out what she plans to do with her extra frozen embryos. Along the way Quantz learns that there are more than one million frozen embryos in the United States with similar uncertain futures.

Then we talk with Deanna Day, a historian of medicine and technology and a post-doctoral fellow at CHF, and Lara Freidenfelds, a historian who writes about women’s health, sex, and reproduction in America.

SHOW CLOCK:

00:03 Introduction

01:46 A tale of unused embryos

11:35 Interview with Deanna Day and Lara Freidenfelds

CREDITS:

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Bob Kenworthy

Guests: Deanna Day and Lara Freidenfelds

Reporter: Allison Quantz

Producer & Editor: Mariel Carr

Music courtesy of Audio Network and the Free Music Archive.

Check out Distillations magazine at distillations.org, where you'll find articles, videos, and our podcast.

Chemical weapons have played a chilling role in human history, ever since they were first used in World War I. As reports of more recent use continue to cycle through the news, we decided to take a deeper look. We wanted to understand why chemical weapons were created in the first place, the ethical dilemmas inherent in their use, and the complicated process of getting rid of them.

The story begins in Belgium, where reporter Helena de Groot visits a farm in Flanders Fields—the frontline during World War I—and discovers that for some people the war isn’t yet over.

Then we talk to Jeffrey Johnson, a historian of science and technology at Villanova University with a special interest in the origins of chemical warfare, and Amy E. Smithson, a senior fellow at the James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies, who specializes in modern-day chemical and biological weapons and their proliferation. Our guests discuss the past and present of chemical weapons, and share their thoughts about the future of warfare.

SHOW CLOCK:

00:03 Introduction

01:10 Cleaning up Flanders Fields

08:56 Interview with Amy E. Smithson and Jeffrey Johnson

CREDITS:

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Bob Kenworthy

Guests: Amy E. Smithson and Jeffrey Johnson

Reporter: Helena de Groot

Producer & Editor: Mariel Carr

Music courtesy of the Audio Network, the Free Music Archive and Mobygratis.com.

Check out Distillations magazine at distillations.org, where you'll find articles, videos, and our podcast.

If you asked people which of their senses they most feared losing, they'd probably say sight or hearing. But what about the ability to smell? This episode of Distillations examines what is perhaps our most underrated sense, and ponders what life would be like without it.

We hit the streets of South Philadelphia to understand how a pervasive odor troubled neighborhood residents in the summer of 2014. Then we hear the story of Mario Rivas, a man who has lived his whole life without a sense of smell, and the great lengths he went to gain one.

Then, we'll talk to two smell experts, Pamela Dalton, a psychologist at the Monell Chemical Senses Center in Philadelphia, and David Barnes, a professor of the history of medicine and public health at the University of Pennsylvania. Our guests discuss the connection between smelling, odors, and emotions, as well as the history of odors, germs, and public health crises.

SHOW CLOCK:

00:01 Introduction

01:10 South Philadelphia's Great Stink of 2014

05:31 The Man Who Couldn't Smell

15:45 Interview with Pamela Dalton and David Barnes

CREDITS:

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Bob Kenworthy

Guests: Pamela Dalton and David Barnes

Reporters: Mariel Carr and Jocelyn Frank

Producer & Editor: Mariel Carr

Music courtesy of the Audio Network.

Check out Distillations magazine at distillations.org, where you'll find articles, videos, and our podcast.

Where can you find a teacup, the molar of a goat, and an arrowhead all in one place? At an urban archaeology site, that’s where. This episode of Distillations goes underground, and reveals the fascinating worlds beneath our city shoes.

First, we visit an artifact processing lab where volunteers are dusting off thousands of objects from a historic street in Philadelphia. Then we stop in on an excavation site alongside Interstate 95.

Then, we'll talk to Doug Mooney, a senior archaeologist at URS corporation and the president of the Philadelphia Archaeological Forum, and Deirdre Kelleher, an archaeologist finishing her doctorate at Temple University. They describe their experiences with public archaeology, debunk a few of the field’s myths (no dinosaurs here, folks) and describe the unique process of digging in cities.

SHOW CLOCK:

00:03 Introduction

01:05 After the dig: Artifact processing at Temple University

05:40 During the dig: Uncovering history along I-95

09:41 Interview with Deirdre Kelleher and Doug Mooney

CREDITS:

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Bob Kenworthy

Guests: Deirdre Kelleher and Doug Mooney

Reporter, Producer & Editor: Mariel Carr

MUSIC:

“Quirky Sleuth” Philip Guyler, Audio Network

“Actual Reality” Lucky Dragons

“Nature Kid” Podington Bear

“Hallon” Christian Bjoerklund

“What Is Its Vessel?” Dave Merson Hess

“Fisherman” Dave Merson Hess

“I Like Dogs” Dave Merson Hess

“Dream” (instrumental) Chan Wai Fat

“The Bear’s Just for Show” Krackatoa

“Healing Sleep” Infinite Third

“Orange Juice” Podington Bear

“Starling” Podington Bear

All songs courtesy of the Free Music Archive, freemusicarchive.org

Check out Distillations magazine at distillations.org, where you'll find articles, videos, and our podcast.

This show takes on the frothy subject of beer, and explores the science, culture, and history behind the suds.

First, Bob and Michal go back to school--beer school--and they learn a few things about what makes beer so tasy.

Then we talk to Patrick E. McGovern, a beer and wine archaeologist, and Roger Barth, a chemist, professor, and home brewer. They discuss the science behind beer, how modern craft breweries can help us understand ancient beers, and how technology has allowed us to drink like an ancient king. They also discuss the spiritual side of beer and the role beer has played in human evolution.

SHOW CLOCK

00:07 Introduction

00:57 Bob and Michal go to beer school

07:12 Interview with Patrick E. McGovern and Roger Barth

CREDITS

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Bob Kenworthy

Guests: Patrick E. McGovern and Roger Barth

Reporter, Producer & Editor: Mariel Carr

MUSIC:

"Take Me Higher," Jahzzar

"Green Lights," Jahzzar

"Bill Pickett," Robodub

"Portasound Dub" Robodub

"Watch the Road Bub," All Urban Outfield

"Seconde Introspection," Horten V3

"Devil with the Devil," Underscore Orkestra

"Foods that start with Q," All Urban Outfield

"The Plaintive Heating Griddle," Ergo Phizmiz

"Elephant," Moana

"Sunny Day," The Rabbits

"Nia," Dubh Thrian

"Sonstiges," Podington Bear

All songs courtesy of the Free Music Archive, freemusicarchive.org

Check out Distillations magazine at distillations.org, where you'll find articles, videos, and our podcast.

This episode explores the colorful (and sometimes risk-filled) history of pigments and painters, and the conservators who save paintings from the ravages of time and accidental chemistry.

First we take an art field trip around Philadelphia as art historian and CHF fellow Elisabeth Berry Drago tries to paint like it's 1699. We visit a butcher shop, a tile store, and an art supply store to try to get what we need.

Then we talk to art conservator Mark F. Bockrath and Elisabeth Berry Drago. They tell us about the messy and occasionally dangerous process of making paints from pigments and talk about the transition to using paint from tubes. They also explain the conservation process and tell us why alchemists were so important to painters in early modern times.

CREDITS:

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Bob Kenworthy

Guests: Mark F. Bockrath and Elisabeth Berry Drago

Reporter, Producer & Editor: Mariel Carr

MUSIC:

"Pensacola Twilight," Lee Rosevere - freemusicarchive.org

"Do What You Can," Lee Rosevere - freemusicarchive.org

"Backtime," Lee Rosevere - freemusicarchive.org

"Stardust," Phonotrash - freemusicarchive.org

"Sunny Day," The Rabbits - freemusicarchive.org

"Wonder Cycle," Chris Zabriskie - freemusicarchive.org

"Nia," Dubh Thrian - freemusicarchive.org

"Tragic," Semyon - freemusicarchive.org

"Converge to Some Centre," We Are All Alone - freemusicarchive.org

"First," Overlake - freemusicarchive.org

"The Plaintive Heating Griddle," Ergo Phizmiz - freemusicarchive.org

"Stabbings," Moby - mobygratis.com

Check out Distillations magazine at distillations.org, where you'll find articles, videos, and our podcast.

Joe Palca is one of the best science storytellers out there. In his 20 years as an NPR science correspondent he’s covered all sorts of obscure topics, from soccer-playing robots and oyster glue to turtle paleontology. He finds the humor in the serious and the thoughtful in the funny, usually by focusing on the human elements of stories.

“Stories are usually about people, those are the ones we remember. We don’t remember stories about transuranic elements,” Palca says.

We took this episode of Distillations on the road and visited Palca at NPR headquarters in Washington, D.C., where we got a behind-the-scenes tour of his program, Joe’s Big Idea.

CREDITS:

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Bob Kenworthy

Reporter, Producer & Editor: Mariel Carr

MUSIC:

“Converge To Some Centre”- We Are All Alone

“Where the Magic Happens”- THERE

“Teletransportation” - Coma Stereo

“Elsewhere” - Phonotrash

“Solutions” - Lee Rosevere

“Tragic”- Semyon

All songs from the Free Music Archive, freemusicarchive.org

Check out Distillations magazine at distillations.org, where you'll find articles, videos, and our podcast.

How do you show what the inside of an atom looks like? Or how a scientist feels in the moment of discovery? We decided to approach the human stories of science in a new way: by visualizing them.

First we visit author and illustrator Jonathan Fetter-Vorm in his studio. Then we stop in on a college animation class and hear from students creating cartoons about chemistry and fairies.

Then we talk to historian Bert Hansen and author and Jonathan Fetter-Vorm. They tell us how the comics of the 1930s, 40s and 50s relayed stories of “real heroes”—including doctors, chemists and physicists, and how new graphic genres are engaging readers and sparking their interest in history and science. They both suggest that surprise, emotion, and showing the impossible all work to engage readers in ways that written words alone cannot.

SHOW CLOCK:

00:04 Introduction

01:15 Studio visit #1: Jonathan Fetter-Vorm in Brooklyn

03:54 Studio visit #2: University of the Arts in Philadelphia

07:00 Interview with Bert Hansen and Jonathan Fetter-Vorm

15:06 Reflections from Bob and Michal

LINKS TO CONTENT:

"Heroism in Medical Science" from Dupont's radio drama, Cavalcade of America

"Now I am become Death" Robert Oppenheimer speech

RELATED VIDEOS:

"Drawing Stories of Science with Jonathan Fetter-Vorm"

"How the Public Became Interested in Medical Science"

"Science for Artists: University of the Arts Students Reflect on Animating Objects from CHF's Collection"

CREDITS:

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Robert Kenworthy

Guests: Jonathan Fetter-Vorm and Bert Hansen

Reporter, Producer & Editor: Mariel Carr

MUSIC:

“Stabbings”- Moby, mobygratis

"Isolate"- Moby, mobygratis

“The Plaintive Heating Griddle”- Ergo Phizmiz, Free Music Archive

“Awake in the Dream”- Infinite Third, Free Music Archive

"Sunny Day"- The Rabbits, Free Music Archive

"Do What You Can"- Lee Rosevere, Free Music Archive

"My Friends"- Quiet Orchestra, Free Music Archive

“Tragic”- Semyon, Free Music Archive

Check out Distillationsmagazine at distillations.org, where you'll find articles, videos, and our podcast.

Have you ever wondered how chicken nuggets are made? Or what propylene glycol monostearate, monocalcium phosphate, or other listed ingredients are doing in your favorite packaged snacks? Distillations hosts Michal Meyer and Robert Kenworthy certainly did, and they went to the corner deli to inspect some processed food themselves.

They also spoke with experts Bryant Simon, a historian, and David Schleifer, a sociologist, about how trans fats and chicken nuggets arrived on the food scene as the healthier options, but have since turned into villains.

Both Simon and Schleifer suggest that when it comes to deciding what we eat, we might have less choice than we think. Class, geography, and convenience (for both food makers and food eaters) all play a role.

SHOW CLOCK:

00:03 Introduction

00:36 Michal Meyer tries her first Tastykake

03:39 Interview with Bryant Simon and David Schleifer

LINKS TO CONTENT:

"Afternoon Snack" - A video starring Michal Meyer and Bob Kenworthy.

CREDITS:

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Robert Kenworthy

Guests: David Schleifer and Bryant Simon

Producer & Editor: Mariel Carr

MUSIC:

“Run Up”- Moby, mobygratis

“Stabbings”- Moby, mobygratis

“Christmas All Alone”- Candlegravity, Free Music Archive

“Elsewhere”- Phonotrash, Free Music Archive

“Tragic”- Semyon, Free Music Archive

“Dragon’s Lair”- Thiaz Itch, Free Music Archive

“The Spirit”- Waylon Thornton, Free Music Archive

“Heroines”- Diablo Swing Orchestra, Free Music Archive

Check out Distillations magazine at distillations.org, where you'll find articles, videos, and our podcast.

Thanks to modern technology most crimes these days can be neatly solved in under an hour. At least that's what fictional TV shows like CSI seem to suggest.

We wanted to address the so-called "CSI Effect," caused by the simplification of forensic science in popular culture. CSI and likeminded TV shows–with their heroic investigators solving crimes in mere minutes–mislead viewers and affect real court cases. The reality of investigation is much slower and more complex, but no less fascinating.

Hosts Michal Meyer and Robert Kenworthy speak with experts Anna Dhody, a physical and forensic anthropologist, and Lisa Rosner, a historian. They discuss the early days of solving crime and the on-going chemistry of the human body throughout life and death.

SHOW CLOCK:

00:03 Introduction

02:03 Past and present: the "CSI Effect"

05:00 Forensic science: its beginnings

06:40 Burke and Hare: the not-quite body snatchers

09:34 Digging up the bodies: mass murder in Peru

11:11 The chemistry of bodies

12:44 Skulls, phrenology, and race

CREDITS:

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Robert Kenworthy

Guests: Anna Dhody and Lisa Rosner

Producer & Editor: Mariel Carr

"Stabbings" by Moby, courtesy of Mobygratis.com

check out Distillations magazine at distillations.org, where you'll find articles, videos, and our podcast.

What can zombies teach us about our fears of survival? CHF's Michal Meyer and Bob Kenworthy talk to Deanna Day, a CHF fellow, and Robert Hicks, director of the College of Physicians’ Mütter Museum about what zombies can tell us about apocalyptic diseases and medical cures.

With the popularity of post-apocalyptic storytelling at an all-time high, CHF decided to look into the science, history, and sociology behind these fears.

SHOW CLOCK:

00:20 Introduction

01:55 Interview with Deanna Day and Robert Hicks

28:48 Reflections with Michal Meyer and Bob Kenworthy

34:48 Closing Credits

CREDITS:

Hosts: Michal Meyer and Bob Kenworthy

Guests: Deanna Day and Robert Hicks

Editor: Mariel Carr

Check out Distillations magazine at distillations.org, where you'll find articles, videos, and our podcast.

Some say we are on the verge of a bright future in which nuclear power will play a major role in responding to climate change. Others say that we should expect more Fukushimas. Whichever way our nuclear future goes, there will be tradeoffs between energy and the environment.

Hosts Michal Meyer and Robert Kenworthy speak with nuclear historians Alex Wellerstein and Linda Richards. They discuss how our turbulent nuclear past has shaped, for better and for worse, our current attitudes.

Ancient Greek doctors knew about it, but could do nothing about the scourge we know as cancer. Producer Ed Prosser interviews historian Viviane Quirke about the development of chemotherapy drugs in the 20th century, drugs that for the first time offered hope to cancer patients. Next up producer Christine Laskowski goes on a very personal journey. Last year her father was among the more than 1 million Americans diagnosed with cancer. Along with radiation, his treatment included a drug called cisplatin. Cisplatin has nasty side effects, so why is a drug first used to treat cancer in the 1970s still used for many cancers?

00:00 Opening Credits 00:33 Introduction 01:08 Interview: Viviane Quirke 06:58 Chemotherapy: Cisplatin 17:00 Closing Credits

Our theme music is composed by Andrew Chalfen. Additional credits may be found at http://chemheritage.org/distillations.

It’s that time of year again where we dive into our archives and bring back some of our favorite segments from the past year. First, meet Ian MacLeod from our show Shipwrecks, a man who spends much of his time with sunken ships and who knows about the chemistry that eats at them. Next, a 19th-century Philadelphia church designed by Frank Furness is crumbling. Can it be saved? Find out in this feature from our show Neighborhood Preservation.

00:00 Opening Credits 00:31 Introduction 01:01 Shipwrecks: Wrecked! 09:33 Neighborhood Preservation: The 19th Street Baptist Church 17:51 Closing Credits

Our feature producer is Diane Hope. www.dianehope.com Western Australia’s Maritime Museum in Fremantle http://museum.wa.gov.au/museums/shipwrecks Pearl Harbor National Park Service http://www.nps.gov/valr/index.htm

Our theme music is composed and performed by Andrew Chalfen. Additional music includes “Ray – A Life Underwater,” by junior85; “Ghost Science,” by Teeth Mountain; “The Mollusk,” by Ween.

It’s that time of year again where we dive into our archives and bring back some of our favorite segments from the past year. First we travel to Austin’s South by Southwest Festival from the show Hard to Stomach. Producer Lindsay Patterson takes a sniff at a public science experiment in which participants donated a few things they could do without. Say human cheese! Next, Mary Harris discovers that taste cells don’t just live on tongues. What do these cells get up to in the rest of the human body? Find out in this feature from our show, In Good Taste.

Show Clock

00:00 Opening Credits 00:32 Introduction 01:03 Hard to Stomach: Armpit Cheese 08:45 In Good Taste: Super-Tasters 15:04 Closing Credits

Credits

Our theme music is composed and performed by Andrew Chalfen. Additional credits available at chemheritage.org/distillations.

It’s hard to make decisions without information, that’s why some researchers in the San Francisco area are collecting carbon dioxide data at the neighborhood level. As producer Andrew Stelzer discovers, the BEACON project does more than gather data; it also brings home the effects of small-scale events, such as rush hour, and allows researchers to track pollution to its source. Then Eileen Fleming discusses DIY monitoring with Shannon Dosemagen from the Public Laboratory for Open Technology and Science.

00:00 Opening Credits 00:44 Introduction 01:44 Air Monitoring 09:02 Interview: Shannon Dosemagen 14:41 Closing Credits

Link to BEACON project: http://beacon.berkeley.edu/

Public Lab - http://publiclab.org/

Additional credits available at chemheritage.org/distillations.

Join us for the third installment of The Stages of Life, spotlighting the chemistry found in childhood, adulthood, and old age. We start by looking at what happens to the brain as we move into old age, and then we investigate how some tiny technology can help as hearing fades.

Today’s episode centers on adulthood. First, Pennsylvania State University’s Suzy Scherf tells us what’s going on in the brains of adolescents. Then, Katrina Roi takes a look at a common consumer product, the condom, and those who want to make it better.

SHOW CLOCK

00:00 Opening Credits

00:26 Introduction

01:09 Interview: Inside the Brain

05:38 The Chemistry Behind the Condom

14:10 Closing Credits

CREDITS

Special thanks to Tori Indivero for interviewing the scientists in this series. Additional credits available at chemheritage.org/distillations.

Today we begin a three-part series, The Stages of Life, spotlighting the chemistry found in childhood, adulthood, and old age. First, a look at the brains of children, followed by the colorful world of the crayon.

SHOW CLOCK

00:00 Opening Credits

00:27 Introduction

01:13 Interview: Inside the Brain

06:14 Colorful Chemistry, the World of Crayons

16:15 Closing Credits

CREDITS

The Three Stages of Life is part of CHF’s Thanks to Chemistry project, sponsored by BASF Corporation, The Camille and Henry Dreyfus Foundation, DuPont, and ExxonMobil. Additional credits available at chemheritage.org/distillations.

On today's show we look at how delicate desert ecosystems are affected by climate change. Then the impact of toxic metals on Rocky Mountain streams.

SHOW CLOCK

00:00 Opening Credits

00:33 Introduction

01:10 Feature: Water Webs

09:10 Interview: Johanna Kraus

14:48 Closing Credits

CREDITS

Special thanks to Diane Hope and Jody Roberts for researching this show. Additional credits available at chemheritage.org/distillations.

On today's show we look at the modern power grid, on the brink of a new era. First, why the smart grid matters. Then, the critical mission of Caltech's Solar Army.

SHOW CLOCK

00:00 Opening Credits

00:34 Introduction

01:09 A Smarter Grid

10:11 The Solar Army

16:23 Closing Credits

CREDITS

Special thanks to Charlie Mintz and Jennifer Dionisio for researching this show. Video produced by Josh Kurz. Additional credits available at chemheritage.org/distillations.