The Science of Everything Podcast

An introduction to the particles and forces that constitute the standard model of particle physics. After some historical background, we introduce each of the three fundamental forces that comprise the standard model - electromagnetism, the strong nuclear force, and the weak nuclear force. We then compare and contrast the different types of particles these forces interact with, including the difference between fermions and bosons, and between quarks and leptons. We consider the types of interactions experienced by these particles and the three generations of matter. Recommended pre-listening is Episodes 158 & 159: Quantum Electrodynamics Parts 1 and 2. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

Beginning with primitive Cynodonts in the late Permian, we our evolutionary development through Mesozoic mammaliaforms, the divergence of monotremes from marsupials and placentals, and culiminating in the emergence of primates in the early Cenozoic. Along the way we discuss the emergence of important traits such as the mammalian ear and various primate adaptations for arboreal life. We then discuss the sequence of hominin species in the lead up to to humans, including Ardipithecus, Australopithecus, Homo erectus, and Neanderthals. We conclude with an analysis of the emergence of distinctive human traits, including bipedalism, encephalisation, and extensive tool use. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 161: Dinosaurs and Other Ancient Reptiles. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

A survey of extinct animal species from the Permian through the Cretaceous periods. We discuss important differences between anapsids, synapsids, and diapsids, and then review diverse species from all groups, including pelycosaurs, therapsids, parareptiles, euryapsids, pterosaurs, pseudosuchia, and dinosaurs. We also consider aspects including bipedal gait, endothermy, gigantism, and the cause of the end Cretaceous mass extinction. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 160: The Evolution of Animals. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

A journey through the evolutionary history of animals, beginning with the split of the metazoans from protists about 760 million years ago and ending with the rise of the amniotes about 340 million years ago. The focus is the development of key morphological traits necessary for more complex animal forms, including the origin of true tissues, bilaterial symmetry, the complete gut, the coelom, internal skeletons, and limbs. We conclude with an analysis of key adaptions that allowed amniotes to life in a wider range of terrestrial habitats. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 155: Embryology and Development and Episode 157: The Geologic Time Scale. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

Continuing from quantum electrodynamics part 1, here we explore the mathematical machinery used to compute interactions between particles, including propagators, Feynman diagrams, cross sections. We then walk through a simple example calculation to illustrate how these tools are applied. I conclude with an introduction to the problem of divergent loop integrals and how these can be resolved using renormalisation. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 158: Quantum Electrodynamics Part 1.  If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

A detailed look into the physics and mathematics of quantum electrodynamics, the theory of how light and matter interact. We discuss the generalisation of the Schrodinger equation to the Klein-Gordon and Dirac equations, and howw these describe the propogation of light and fermions respectively. We then consider the process of computing transition probabilities between quantum states, including the S matrix and perturbation theory, and Wick's theorem. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 85: Introduction to Quantum Field Theory. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

A survey of the Earth's history through the lens of the geologic timescale. We begin with a discussion of the terminology of geochronologic units and how they are specified using 'golden spikes'. We then review the development of Earth's atmosphere, geosphere, and biosphere through the Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic eons. We cover many topics including the supercontinent cycle, the great oxidation event, the evolution of eukaryotes, the Cambrian explosion, and mass extinctions. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 156: Fossils and Dating Methods. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

An introduction to the techniques used to study the history and ages of geological speciments. We begin with an overview of chronostratigraphy,  covering principles of relative dating, way up indicators, and biostratigraphy. We then discuss geochronology, including a review of early attempts to determine the age of the Earth, the principles and assumptions of radiometric dating, and the radioisotopes most commonly used for dating. Finally, we discuss processes and mechanisms of fossilisation, and review some of the most important classes of index fossils. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 74: Minerals and Rocks, and Episode 77: Nuclear Physics. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

An introduction to the process of development, beginning with fertilisation and covering the stages of blastocyst formation, implantation into the uterus, gastrulation and its constituent cell movements, neurulation and the role of the notochord, and the beginnings of organogenesis. We also discuss the differences in gastrulation between protostomes and deuterostomes, along with the many specialised structures found in amniotes to protect the growing embryo from drying out. We conclude with overview of some of the genetic mechanisms government the development process, including Hox genes and their role in governing genetic regulatory networks. Recommended prelistening is Episode 25: Tissues, Organs, and Systems. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

An overview of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), beginning from the basic physics of nuclear magnetic resonance, and covering the use of radiowaves to excite nuclear spin states, and the T1 and T2 modes of relaxation. We then explore how these phenomena are used to produce 3d images, including magnetic field gradients, frequency encoding, phase encoding, and Fourier transforms. We conclude with a discussion of functional imaging, including the haemodynamic response, the BOLD signal, echo planar imaging, and the steps of preprocesing. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 14: Principles of Quantum Mechanics, and Episode 61: Magnetism. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

A review of the carbohydrate insulin model of obesity and the related proposal that low carbohydrate diets are superior to traditional low fat diets. I begin with a discussion of the theory behind the carbohydrate insulin model, and then assess its plausibility using relevant evidence from rodent studies, dietary studies, ahd controlled feeding experiments. I argue that the scientific evidence does not support the alleged benefits of low carb diets for weight loss in otherwise healthy adults. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 151: Diet and Nutrition, and Episode 152: Obesity, Diabetes, and Hypertension. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

An interview with Ariel Zeleznikow-Johnston, author of the book 'The Future Loves You: How and Why We Should Abolish Death'. We begin by discussing how best to define death, focusing on the idea of death as the permanent disruption of psychological identity, and how such identity is constituted by our personality, desires, and memories. We then consider the science of brain preservation, including the recently-developed technique of Aldehyde-Stabilized Cryopreservation, and how it could be used to indefinitely preserve the brain structure that encodes or personal identity. Ariel argues that such a preserved brain could potentially be used to construct a digital simulation of our brains, essentially allowing us to survive the biological death of our bodies. We conclude by considering some potential challenges of implementign such a technology, and whether it would achieve widespread social acceptance. Ariel's book: The Future Loves You: How and Why We Should Abolish Death Turning Fate into Choice: Patient Self-Determination and Life Extension More on brain preservation: A case for developing Aldehyde Stabilized Cryopreservation into a medical procedure How much protein structure loss is there following glutaraldehyde crosslinking? Large Mammal BPF Prize Winning Announcement Mapping the Drosophila brain: The connectome of an insect brain | Science

A review of the science between the metabolic syndrome, including discussion of obesity, diabetes, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia. We discuss the pathophysiology of how enlargement of adipocytes disrupts metabolic signalling pathways and leads to buildup of lipid intermediates. We then consider how these effects impair health, examining the causes of insulin resistance, atherosclerosis, and dysregulation of blood pressure. We conclude by looking at how such symptoms lead to pathology and increased mortality in overweight and obese individuals. Recommended prelistening is Episode 151: Diet and Nutrition, and Episode 18: Biochemistry Basics. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

An introduction to human nutrition, in which we discuss the nutritional importance and role of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, and minerals, before considering the effects of malnutrition, how it is measured, and its prevalence around the world. We conclude with an analysis of basal metabolic rate, reviewing evidence concerning its variability across persons and factors that affect it. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 18: Biochemistry Basics If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

An exploration into the exciting world of home appliances and devices. We begin with a journey through the kitchen, discussing the design and operating principles behind the refrigerator, rice cooker, convection oven, microwave, and dishwasher. We proceed to the laundry to examine how the washing machine, vacuum cleaner, clothes iron, and dryer work. Finally we take a bathroom break and consider how the flush toilet, sinks, and plumbing work.  If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

An introduction to the psychological study of personality, beginning with a definition of what is and is not personality and a brief history of the development of the field from Freud and Jung through the Myers-Briggs Indicator and the modern trait theories. I then discuss the Big Five personality traits, covering openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism, along with validation and criticisms of this model. I conclude with a brief discussion of values and narrative identity as additional aspects of personality.  If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

An introduction to the processes by which cells control which genes are expressed. We begin with an overview of why genetic regulation is necessary and the key stages where such regulation occurs, including key concepts such as transcription factors and DNA binding domains. We then discuss prokaryotic gene regulation, focusing on the lac operon in E. coli. We then expand the discussion to cover the various mechanisms of eukaryotic gene regulation, including chromatic remodelling, transcriptional regulation, post-transcriptional regulation, RNA editing, and micro RNAs. Recommended pre-listening is Episodes 34-35: DNA Structure and Function, and Episode 118: Cell Signalling. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

Here we survey of the causes and consequences of genetic mutation, including a discussion of mechanisms of endogenous and induced mutations, rates of mutation, types of single nucleotide mutations, and the phenotypic effects of mutation. We also discuss various mechanisms for detecting and repairing genetic mutations, including base excision repair, DNA mismatch repair, nucleotide excision repair, double strand break repair. We conclude with an examination of large-scale chromosomal changes, including deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations, unequal crossing over, with a brief look at polypoidy in plants and aneuploidy in humans. Recommended pre-listening is Episodes 34 and 35: DNA Structure and Function, and Episode 44: Cell Division. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

An introduction to classical Mendelian genetics, in which we discuss Mendel's experiments with peas and the laws of heredity that he discovered, including inheritance of one allele from each parent, the law of dominance, and the law of independent segregation. We then consider more complex cases of genetic inheritance, including sex-linked traits, incomplete dominance, codominance, and epistasis. The episode concludes with a discussion of quantitative traits determined by many genes, including how genetic variation is described, how sources of variance are identified using genome wide association studies, and the conceptual issues with defining heredity and separating the effects of genes from those of environment.   If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything Check out out youtube channel!The Science of Everything Podcast - YouTube

Continuing our series on General Relativity, we discuss the derivation of the Schwarzschild metric as a vacuum solution to Einstein's Field Equations, and analyse the physical meaning of this solution, including the properties of the singularity, event horizon, and effects of time dilation and length compression. We then consider how solutions like the Schwarzschild metric yield testable predictions such as gravitational lensing and graviational redshift, which serve as important evidence in support of General Relativity. We conclude with a discussion about some of the more exotic aspects of black holes, including Hawking radiation, the no hair theorem, and the black hole information loss paradox. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 136: Introduction to General Relativity. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

Our climate change series concludes with a discussion of the various lines of evidence indicating that recent warming is the result of human-produced greenhouse gases, including greater warming at night, cooling of the stratosphere, and relative depletion of C14 in the atmosphere. We then consider the various expected impacts of climate change, including increased extreme weather events, acidification of the oceans, changes to crop yields, and affects on various ecosystems. We end with an analysis of the relative costs and benefits of mitigation, and discuss likjely climate projections for the remainder of the 21st century. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 143: Climate Modelling. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything Check out out youtube channel!The Science of Everything Podcast - YouTube

An overview of climate models, beginning with a summary of the major types of models, and then a more detailed disussion of hte primitive equations and parameterised feedbacks that characterise the widely used Atmospheric General Circulation Models. We also discuss techniques for model validation and some evidence regarding the accuracy of various climate models. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 142: The Greenhouse Effect. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything Check out out youtube channel!The Science of Everything Podcast - YouTube

A detailed discussion of the greenhouse effect and its impact on Earth's climate. We begin with a discussion of Earth’s energy budget, the various greenhouse gases and their interactions with longwave radiation, and a summary of major sources of greenhouse gas emisions. We then examine the mechanisms of the greenhouse effect in more detail using the idealised greenhouse model and radiative transfer models. We conclude with an analysis of the sensitivity of Earth's climate to changes in greenhouse gas concentrations, and how this interacts with the atmospheric lapse rate. Recommended prelistening is Episode 141: Natural Climate Change. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

An overview of the natural mechanisms by which climate changes over time. Beginning with an introduction to the concepts of radiative forcing and climate sensitivity, we then discuss solar forcing, orbital changes, volcanic eruptions, and silicate weathering, covering how each process operates and the effects it has on Earth's climate over varying periods of time. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 140: A History of Earth's Climate. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

A journey through the history of Earth's changing climate, in which we explore how Earth's climate has fluctuated over the past billion years. After reviewing the various temperature proxies used to estimate past climactic conditions, we discuss the varying hothouse and icehouse periods of Earth's history, the onset of the Quarternay Ice Age, the current interglacial period, the anomoly of the Younger Dryas, the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Ages, and the rapid rise in temperatures during the twentieth century. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 90: Climate Systems. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

In this special collaboration with I Know Dino podcast, we discuss the history and impact of dinosaurs in popular culture and media. We cover the history of the scientific study of dinosaurs and how their presentation in media has changed over time with new discoveries, and what aspects of their behaviour and appearance tend to be presented accuracy or inaccurately. We also discuss lesser-known aspects of understanding dinosaurs, such as how changes in the atmosphere and ecosystem would affect dinosaurs of they were to be alive today. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

An introduction to cryptography, internet security, and cryptocurrency, beginning with an overview of RSA cryptography and covering the use of public and private keys and their incorporation into the Transport Layer Security protocol used for secure internet communications. We then examine the key features of cryptocurrencies, including the blockchain, proof of work consensus mechanism, the use of hash functions, and the role of crypto mining. We conclude with a discussion of some of the advantages and disadvantages of cryptocurrencies, including their anonymity, volatility, use in crime, and environmental impacts. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

A discussion of the metabolic pathways involved in breaking down proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids into simple components, extracting their energy, and building back up into more complex components needed for bodily function. We cover glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, lipolysis, beta oxidation, amino acid deamination, gluconeogenesis, fatty acid synthesis, and amino acid synthesis. Our overall focus is on the central role of acetyl-CoA and how the different metabolic pathways interact and intersect. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 18: Biochemistry Basics and Episode 75: Cellular Respiration. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

A journey through the digestive system, beginning with the mouth and progressing through the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine, we consider the structure and function of all key components of the gastrointestinal tract and their roles in facilitating the metabolism of our food. We also discuss the contribution of accessory organs, including the liver, gall bladder, and pancreas. We conclude by considering a few myths about digestion. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 25: Tissues, Organs and Systems. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

An introduction to the conceptual and mathematical framework of Einstein's General Theory of Relativity. We begin by considering the key insight of gravity as a geometric phenomenon, and how the curvature of spacetime by matter explains the equality of inertial and gravitational mass. We then discuss the mathematics of general relativity, including geodesics, differential manifolds, covariant derivatives, the metric tensor, Christoffel symbols, the Riemann curvature tensor, the Ricci tensor, and the energy-momentum tensor. The episode concludes with a derivation and explanation of the significance of Einstein's Field Equations. Recommended pre-listening is Episodes 114 and 115: Special Relativity 1 and 2.  If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

An introduction to the scientific study of emotion, including a discussion of the difficulties in defining emotions, discrete and dimensional methods of classifying emotions, the functional and representational roles of emotions, and an overview of major psychological theories of emotion, including the James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theories. We also examine the neurobiological basis of emotion, including the roles of the orbitofrontal cortex, the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, the cingulate cortex, and the amygdala. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 134: Hormones and the Endocrine System. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

An introduction to hormones and the endocrine system, including a discussion of the definition of hormones and their production, storage, release, and mechanisms of action. I also consider the mechanisms of control and regulation of hormone production, focusing on the role of the hippocampus and the pituitary gland. I conclude with an overview of major endocrine glands in the human body, including the gonads, adrenal glands, thyroid gland, and the thymus. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 38: Neurons and Synapses. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

A journey through the complex network of regions controlling the human motor system, beginning with the spinal cord and its central pattern generators, and working up through the primary motor cortex, the premotor cortex, the posterior parietal cortex, the cerebellum, and the basal ganglia. I discuss the computational roles of each part of the motor control hierarchy, focusing on what functions are performed and what information is represented in each unique brain region. Overall I emphasise the complex interaction between top-down and bottom-up feedback in controlling muscle movement and executing complex motor tasks. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 132: The Muscular System, and Episode 38: Neurons and Synapses.   If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

In this special episode I discuss various topics in evolution and genetics with Art Woods of the Big Biology Podcast. We begin by analysing various ideas associated with the extended evolutionary synthesis, including plasticity, epigentics, and niche construction, discussing the extent to which these ideas are a challenge or merely an addition to the mainstream understanding of evolution. We then consider several common misconceptions about genetics, including the idea of DNA as a blueprint and genetic essentialism. We conclude with a discussion of some politically contentious aspects of genetics.   If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

A journey through the mechanisms of muscles and muscular contraction. I begin by outlining the key structural elements of muscle cells, including the sarcolemma, sarcoplasmic reticulum, the myofibrils and their myofilaments. I then explain the sliding filament mechanism of muscle contraction, and how it is governed by neural signals through the release of calcium. I conclude with a brief overview of the types of muscle contractions, the difference between fast twitch and slow twitch muscle fibres, and a short discussion of some metabolic aspects of muscle function, including the role of creatine phosphate. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 26: Human Organ Systems. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

A special interview from the Padverb Podcast, in which I discuss my research on language in the brain and thoughts on AI. The discussion covers topics such as backpropagation, how humans acquire language and concepts, how artificial neural networks differ from biological neural networks, and some thoughts on the future impact of artificial intelligence. Near the end of the conversation, we also discuss some of my work on exploring the causes of economic growth and development. Link to the Padverb Podcast: The Padverb Podcast with KMO on Apple Podcasts If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

I discuss the mysterious phenomenon of sleep, outlining the different stages of sleep, how the brain controls sleep and wakefulness, and the various theories for the functions of sleep. I also consider sleep in animals, the effects of sleep deprivation, and some major sleep disorders. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 38: Neurons and Synapses.   If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

I introduce the unique and diverse chemistry of the transition metal elements, also known as the d-block metals. I begin with an overview of transition metal properties and ores, and then discuss coordination complexes, ligands, denticity, chelation, coordination geometries, isomerism, and the difference between strong and weak field ligands. We then examine how crystal field theory can explain many properties of transition metals, including their unique colouration and magnetic properties. The episode concludes with an overview of organometallic compounds and ligand field theory, including how pi-bonding can explain the difference between strong and weak field ligands.   If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

Concluding our series on geographic landforms, here I discuss glaciers, including their global distribution, formation, movement, and various glacial formations such as moraines, drumlins, and fjords. I also examine the role of ice in shaping periglacial landscapes, including the effects of permafrost and other frost action processes. I conclude with a brief discussion of groundwater, aquifers, and the hydrological cycle. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

A discussion of the effect of wind on landscapes, focusing on deserts and coastlines. I outline the processes of eolian erosion, transportation, and deposition occurring in deserts, with particular focus on the formation and types of sand dunes. I also discuss other desert landforms, such as the desert pavement, mesas, and alluvial fans. I conclude with a look at coastal processes, including cliff erosion, emergent and submergent coastlines, and beach erosion processes. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

The first in a new series on geomorphology, in which I review the main erosion processes that shape landforms of the natural environment. Here I discuss the key mechanisms of physical and chemical weathering, outline the major forms of erosion, and provide an overview of mass wasting including rockslides and soil creep. I then present an overview of stream processes, including a discussion of river drainage systems, channel patterns, meandering streams, and stream loads. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 75: Rocks and Minerals. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

An exploration of the role of the neurotransmitter serotonin in the development of depression. I discuss the role of serotonin in promoting the production of neurotrophic growth factor, the role the growth factor plays in facilitating neurogenesis and neural plasticity, and the various regions of the brain which are implicated in depression. I conclude by discussing the various cognitive distortions and other phenomena associated with depression, and how they can be treated by both pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 38: Neurons and Synapses. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

In this special episode I discuss genetic testing with Kira Dineen from DNA Today. We cover a range of topics including the process and science behind genetic testing, the types of genetic conditions that can be tested for, the difference between genotyping and gene sequencing, and the promises and potential issues with direct to consumer genetic testing. We also discuss developing social practises surrounding the use of gene technology, difficulties of informed concept, use of genetic material for criminal justice and ancestry databases, and potential future developments of these technologies.  Link to Kira's podcast: DNA Today (dnapodcast.com) If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

A discussion of earthquakes, covering the elastic rebound theory of earthquake generation, the phenomena of deep and intraplate earthquakes, types of seismic waves, methods of earthquake detection, different ways in which earthquakes cause damage, and attempts at earthquake prediction. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 111: Plate Tectonics. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

A discussion of the awesome power of volcanoes, including an overview of the different types of volcanoes, types of lava and pyroclastics, mechanisms of volcanic eruptions, a curvey of volcanic landforms, and a review of some major historical eruptions and their effects on Earth's climate. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 111: Plate Tectonics. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

Concluding the two-part series on the circulatory and respiratory systems, I discuss the biochemical mechanisms by which red blood cells and hemoglobin molecules deliver oxygen to the tissues and carbon dioxide to the lungs, and the mechanisms which regulate these processes. I then consider the respiratory system, giving an overview of the structure and function of the lungs, the process of breathing, control of breathing, and adaptations to high altitudes. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 122: Respiratory and Circulatory Systems Part 2. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

The first in a two-part episode covering the circulatory and respiratory systems, including a discussion of the anatomy of the heart, the process of contraction, and the generation and propagation of electrical activity. I also discuss how the heart functions as a pump, the various types of blood vessels, and control of the heart rate by the brain. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 25: Tissues, Organs and Systems, and Episode 26: Human Organ Systems. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

An overview of the underlying mechanisms of pain, including the role of nociception, transduction of nociceptor signals by spinal pathways, the modulatory effects of opioids, and processing of these inputs in the brain. I also discuss phenomena such as referred pain, psychogenic pain, and congenital insensitivity to pain. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

Building on the previous discussion of Hartree-Fock Theory, I discuss the inclusion of basis functions to produce the Roothaan equations, and the method of solving these using self-consistent field methods. I then provide an introduction into techniques to incorporate electron correlation by adding Slater determinants, focusing on the Configuration Interaction method. I then provide a brief overview of semi-empirical methods, Density Functional Theory, and molecular mechanics. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 119: Computational Chemistry Part 1. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

An overview of techniques of determining molecular structure, including an introduction to valance bond theory covering bond formation and orbital hybridisation, and a discussion of the basics of molecular orbital theory, covering the basics of the Hartree-Fock method for solving the Schrödinger equation and finding molecular orbitals. In the process I also discuss the Pauli exclusion principle, the effect of electron spin, and the indistinguishability of electrons. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

A discussion of cell communication and signalling, including an overview of the purpose of cell signalling, the main types of signals, and applications such as hormones, neurotransmitters, and cytokines. The difference between G protein-coupled receptors, enzyme-linked receptors, and intracellular receptors is also considered, concluding with a summary of the process of signal transduction and the role of second messengers. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 116: The Cell Membrane. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

A discussion of the transportation and sorting of proteins within the eukaryotic cell, including an overview of the endomembrane system, the mechanisms of nuclear transport, transmembrane transport, and vesicular transport. I also consider the structure and functions of the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, and lysosomes, and how they are joined together in a complex network of protein transportation and vesicular traffic. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 116: The Cell Membrane. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

An introduction to the cell membrane, including a discussion of the structure of the bilipid membrane, an overview of the structure and function of membrane proteins, a review of the fluid mosaic model, and a discussion of mechanisms of membrane transport, including both passive and active transport. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 10: The Cell, and Episode 18: Biochemistry Basics. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

In the second and final part of this series, I discuss the major consequences of special relativity, including the relativity of simultaneity, time dilation, length contraction, and mass-energy equivalence. I then provide an overview of some of the experimental tests of special relativity, and conclude with an analysis of some alleged paradoxes in relativity, including the twins paradox, and the ladder paradox. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 114: Special Relativity Part 1. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

The first of a two part series on special relativity, I provide a brief overview of the historical development of relativity theory, including a discussion of the role of the Michelson-Morley experiment, and considerations from classical electromagnetism. I then outline Einstein's two postulates, discuss their meaning, and provide some explanation for how to interpret a constant speed of light. I also provide an introduction to Lorentz transformations and the notion of spacetime. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 13: Newtonian Mechanics. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a PayPal donation or becoming a Patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

I discuss the methods and results of my Master's Thesis, in which I analysed electrophysiological data of the mouse visual system using a variety of statistical and computational techniques. I consider some of the major research questions addressed in my work, including population encoding, stimulus representation, neural network modelling, and state space modelling of information transformation. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 113: Visual Processing.   If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a paypal donation or becoming a patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

A discussion of higher-order processing of information in the visual system, including an overview of how the brain extracts edges and basic shapes from simple stimuli in the retina, how motion is detected, how parts of objects are distinguished, how object recognition occurs, and the differences between grandmother cell and distributed processing theories of neural encoding. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 47: Vision Part III.   If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a paypal donation or becoming a patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

An overview of the field of microbiology, beginning with a brief history of the discipline, and then proceeding through a summary of the structure and function of various microbial life forms, including protists, yeasts, bacteria, archaea, viruses, and prions. The episode concludes with a discussion of microbial growth and methods to reduce it. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 10: The Cell.   If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a paypal donation or becoming a patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

An introduction to the theory of plate tectonics, beginning with an overview of the internal structure of Earth, the differences between oceanic and continental crust, subduction and other forms of plate boundaries, the formation of volcanic arcs, the origin of the Earth's magnetic field, and the mechanisms underlying tectonic plate movement. The episode concludes with a summary of the varies lines of evidence in favour of continental drift, including seafloor spread, biogeography, and polar wandering. Recommended prelistening is Episode 74: Minerals and Rocks.   If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a paypal donation or becoming a patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

Building on the basic concepts discussed in the previous episode, this episode examines the formation and development of a wide range of weather phenomena, including air fronts, midlatitude cyclones, tropical cyclones, thunderstorms, and tornadoes. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 109: Weather Part I.   If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a paypal donation or becoming a patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

An introduction to key concepts relevant to understanding weather, including relative and absolute humidity, atmospheric stability, cloud formation and classification, types of precipitation, and the formation and classification of air masses. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 90: Climate Systems.   If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a paypal donation or becoming a patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

In this sixth and final part in our series on economic growth and development, I discuss in more detail some of the key institutions necessary for economic growth to begin, focusing on property rights, enforcement of contracts, and control of corruption. I review the importance of these institutions in the context of historical case studies of countries ranging from the Soviet Union to Mexico, and outline how the most critical institutions vary with the level of development, giving rise to a middle income trap. I also discuss the Washington Consensus and critically analyse the arguments of critics that such institutional reform is not essential for growth. I conclude with a summary of all we have learned and discussed throughout the growth series. The recommended pre-listening is Episode 107: Economic Growth and Development Part V. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a paypal donation or becoming a patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

In this fifth part of our series on economic growth and development, I examine the major factors that have been advanced as explaining differences in growth outcomes between countries. I provide a summary of the arguments and evidence for and against the importance of culture, dependency, democracy, geography, education, and institutions in accounting for differential growth outcomes, and conclude with a comparative empirical analysis in which I argue that institutional differences explain the majority of growth differences. The Recommended pre-listening is Episode 106: Economic Growth and Development Part IV. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a paypal donation or becoming a patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

In this fourth part of our series on economic growth and development, I outline the major theories of economic development developed over the past sixty years. I trace the development of such theories beginning with the Harrod-Domar theory, and proceeding through the Solow-Swan model, the Ramsey model, Romer's spillovers model, and endogenous growth theory, in each case discussing their key features, and analysing their strengths and weaknesses. The episode concludes with a brief survey of a range of more recent growth models focusing on modelling coordination failures and poverty traps, emphasising the work of Daron Acemoglu on economic institutions. The Recommended pre-listening is Episode 105: Economic Growth and Development Part III. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a paypal donation or becoming a patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

Astrophysicist Mario Livio joins me to discuss his latest book 'Galileo and the Science Deniers', which chronicles the scientific discoveries of Galileo Galilei and how his advocacy of the heliocentric theory led him into confrontation with the Pope. Our conversation covers the significance of Galileo's discovers, the strengths and weaknesses of his case for the heliocentric theory, his role in establishing the modern scientific method, and what we can learn from this episode in history about the importance of intellectual freedom and science communication in the present day. Check out Mario's book on Amazon. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a paypal donation or becoming a patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

In this third part of the series on economic growth, I discuss the process of structural change as economies progress from underdeveloped to developed, beginning with an overview and historical analysis of Rostow's Stages of Growth model. I then discuss the structures of agricultural production around the world, focusing on barriers to adoption of more modern agricultural techniques and proposed reforms, such as adoption of cash crops, land reform, and improving the security of land tenure. I conclude with an analysis of the benefits and problems associated with urbanisation, incorporating a discussion of agglomeration economies, spillover effects, urban gigantism, and the informal urban sector. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 104: Economic Growth and Development Part II. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a paypal donation or becoming a patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

In the second part of our series on economic growth and development, I provide a brief history of the world economy, beginning with the key features of premodern economies and the Malthusian trap. I then outline critical developments and points of debate in subsequent economic history, including the Great Divergence, the First and Second Industrial Revolutions, the Great Depression and era of central planning, the Bretton Woods era and the gold standard, and the modern period of neoliberalism and globalisation. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 103: Economic Growth and Development Part I. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a paypal donation or becoming a patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

In this the first in an eight-part series covering the causes of economic growth and development, I provide an introduction to the key concepts of absolute and relative poverty, different theories of development, and how GDP is defined and measured. I also discuss the differences between rural and urban poverty, give an overview of the different levels of development of various countries around the world, and outline some of the major methodological challenges in studying causes of economic growth around the world. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 12: The Price System, and Episode 56: The Gains from Trade. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a paypal donation or becoming a patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

Continuing the discussion of photosynthesis from the previous episode, here I outline the importance of the oxygen evolving complex in oxidising water molecules, the importance of photosystem I in extracting additional energy, and the role of light-independent reactions of the Calvin cycle in carrying out carbon fixation. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 101: Photosynthesis Part I. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a paypal donation or becoming a patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

An overview of photosynthesis, including the structure of chloroplasts, phototransduction of energy by chlorophyll, the macromolecular complexes of the thylakoid membrane. I also discuss the mechanisms of electron transfer along the electron transport chain, and the role of ATP synthase in generating ATP. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 75: Cellular Respiration, Episode 32: Light and Optics, and Episode 18: Biochemistry Basics. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a paypal donation or becoming a patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

A special episode in which I discuss some of the ideas and principles behind the production of the show, sources I use for episodes, and my motivations for starting the podcast. I also talk about my own background and research interests, my thoughts about the relationship between science and philosophy, and some ideas for the future of the Science of Everything Podcast.

In this special celebratory 100th episode, I discuss six major unsolved problems in science: the P vs NP problem in computer science, the mystery of dark matter in physics, the existence of the island of stability in chemistry, the historical occurrence of a snowball Earth scenario from geology, the protein folding problem from biochemistry, and the origin of the Cambrian explosion in evolutionary biology. I also discuss some important ideas relating to the future of the podcast. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a paypal donation or becoming a patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

A discussion of the method of reproduction of flowering plants, including an overview of the structure and function of the different components of the flower, pollination, double fertilisation, and seed formation, dispersal, and germination. I also discuss the different types of fruit and vegetables and how the different components of the plant relate to the parts that we consume. I conclude with a brief overview of non-edible plant products, including fibres, resin, and sap. Recommended prerequisite is Episode 97: Plant Structure and Function.

An overview of the nature and properties of electromagnetic radiation, including a discussion of the electromagnetic spectrum, the nature of photons, the speed of light, near and far field radiation, and technological applications of electromagnetic radiation in AM and FM radiation and microwave ovens. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 61: Magnetism and Episode 57: Electric Current and Circuits.

An analysis of memory, including a discussion of the different types of memory, the capacity of short term memory, how environment and depth of processing influences learning and recall, the relationship between memory and familiarity, and different types of amnesia. Complements Episode 20: The Reliability of Memory. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a paypal donation or becoming a patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

A analysis of the sense of smell, beginning with the nose, the olfactory epithelium and the different types of receptor proteins, and progressing through the processes of sensory transduction, transmission of neural signals to the olfactory bulb, and thence into the higher regions of the brain. I also discuss the sense of smell in humans compared to that of other animals, with a focus on the special abilities of bloodhounds. Recommended prerequisite is Episode 38: Neurons and Synapses.

We begin with a discussion of basic electrical phenomena such as current, voltage, resistance and power, before applying these ideas to the analysis of circuits, including series and parallel circuits. We then apply these concepts to understand a number of interesting phenomena, including light bulbs, lightning, and why electricity can be dangerous. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 43: Electric Forces and Fields.

A discussion of the notion of trade and exchange, including the purpose of these activities, the gains from trade, and the role of comparative advantage. I also examine some recent trends in global trade, and briefly discuss some of the major global trade institutions such as the WTO and World Bank and their role in attempting to reduce trade barriers. The episode concludes with a brief discussion of the concept of 'Buy Local'. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 12: The Price System.

Continuing on from the previous episode, I discuss some of the biological determinants of gender differences, including hormonal effects on interests and behaviour, and structural differences in the brain. I then examine a number of more specific topics pertinent to the issue of gender differences, including occupational segregation, women in science and technology, emotional differences, and differences in conversational form and topics.

In this first of our two part series on sex and gender, I discuss the scientific evidence regarding some of the major behavioral and social differences between men and women, and examine the degree to which these can be explained by differential socialization and bias and discrimination. I also discuss the treatment of women in the workplace and how gender stereotypes serve to inhibit female advancement into higher positions.

We begin with a discussion of the essential nature of sound as pressure waves in air, discussing matters such as the speed of sound, harmonic frequencies, loudness, standing waves, and the Doppler effect. We then apply these basic principles to understand the nature of music, and why different musical instruments sound different. Also discussed are the various aspects of music, including beat, pitch, melody, timbre, etc, and the differences between woodwind, percussion, brass, and string instruments. Recommended prelistening is Episode 24: Vibrations and Waves

We begin by discussing some of the basic principles of image formation in lenses and mirrors, including reflection in flat mirrors and curved mirrors, use of ray diagrams, real and virtual images, and the different ways in which images can be formed. These basic principles are then applied to gain an understanding of a number of interesting optical phenomena, including mirages, rainbows, and thin-film interference. I conclude the episode with a discussion of optical magnification, and how this is used in telescopes and microscopes.

A discussion of acids and basis, including a definition and description of the concepts of acidity and basicity, a look at the relationship between the concepts of strength, concentration, and corrosivity, a discussion of weak acids and acid-base equilibria, and an explanation of pH and how buffer solutions act to stabalise pH levels in solution.

In this special episode we examine a number of popular myths, misconceptions, and faulty understandings that are widely held about various scientific questions. Topics covered include misunderstandings about black holes, common misconceptions about genetics, physics mistakes perpetrated in films, popular myths about various animals, and a look at some of the misconceptions about psychology and the mind. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a paypal donation or becoming a patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

A discussion of the effect of market outcomes on firm behavior, consumer welfare, and market outcomes. I examine perfect competition, monopoly, oligopoly, and monopolistic competition, comparing their outcomes and when each type of structure tends to occur. Also includes a discussion of cartels, when they form, and why they tend to fail. Recommended prerequisites are Episode 48: Theory of the Firm, Episode 16: Profits and Competition, and Episode 12: The Price System.

A discussion of the nature of the firm, the different types of firms, and the reasons for the existence of firms. This leads to an overview of the objectives of firms, including decisions regarding how to produce and the profit maximizing quantity to produce, and a discussion of the implications of this behavior for consumers and the economy at large. Recommended prelistening are Episode 12: The Price System and Episode 16: Profits and Competition.

In part 3 of our journey through the visual system, we discuss the structure and function of the Primary Visual Cortex, including an analysis of occular dominance columns, orientation columns, and the six cortical layers. I also cover higher cortical regions involved in visual processing, including the V2, V3, V4, and IT areas, and how these regions are divided into distinct 'what' and 'where' processing pathways.

Resuming from where we left off last time, we continue our journey through the visual system by explaining the structure and function of the bipolar and ganglion cells in the retina, including their somewhat complex receptive fields. I then discuss the optic nerve and cross over of information from different visual hemifields at the optic chiasm. We end this part of our journey with a look at the lateral geniculate nucleus, and how it is structurally organised to process different types of visual information in different locations.

We commence our grand journey to understand the visual system by examining the eye, its anatomical structure and physiological properties. I discuss image formation in the eye, including an explanation of the role of the lens, iris, and cornea. I also explain the phototransduction, the fascinating molecular process by which photons falling on the retina are converted into neural signals that the brain can interpret. Recommended prelistening: Episode 18 - Biochemistry Basics, Episode 25 - Tissues, Organs and Systems, Episode 32 - Light and Optics, Episode 38 - Neurons and Synapses.

A discussion of the cell cycle and cell division, beginning with an overview of chromosomes and chromosome structure, and then proceeding through a detailed discussion of the G1, S, and G2 stages of interphase, and the prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase and cytokinesis phases of M-phase. I conclude the episode with a discussion of cell-cycle regulation, including the role of cyclin-dependent kinases, cell checkpoints, and growth factors. Recommended prerequisites are Episode 10: The Cell, Episode 18: Biochemistry Basics, and Episodes 34 and 35: DNA Structure and Function.

An overview of the basics of electric charges, electric fields, and electric potential energy. I also discuss how objects become charged, how charged particles interact via Coulomb’s Law, how electroscopes work, and how batteries generate voltage. Recommended prerequisites are Episode 9: Matter and Molecules, and Episode 17: Energy, Work, and Momentum.

A discussion of the properties and behaviour of gases, focusing on the kinetic theory of gases and the ideal gas law. I also discuss the thermodynamic behaviours of gases, gas partial pressures, and PV diagrams. Recommended prerequisites are Episode 9: Matter and Molecules and Episode 13: Newtonian Mechanics.

A discussion of the behaviour of fluids, including an overview of the concepts of fluid pressure and Pascal’s Principle. I also discuss Archimedes’ principle of buoyancy and its application to why objects float, and Bernoulli’s Principle of the relationship between fluid speed and pressure, and how this can be applied (and misapplied) to explaining how aeroplanes fly. Recommended prerequisites: Episode 13 Newtonian Mechanics, Episode 27 Intermolecular Bonds and Phase Transitions.

A science-based discussion of the issue of gun control in the United States. After reviewing some basic statistics about crime and gun ownership, I examine the empirical evidence concerning the relationship between gun ownership and violent crime, highlighting the many difficulties associated with such studies and the limitations of this literature. I then discuss some more specific aspects of the gun control debate, including the question of who commits most violent crimes, how deadly guns are compared to other weapons, and how criminals acquire guns. I conclude with a discussion of the evidence for and against various types of gun control measures, and some thoughts on contemporary US gun culture and its impact on gun policy. If you enjoyed the podcast please consider supporting the show by making a paypal donation or becoming a patreon supporter. https://www.patreon.com/jamesfodor https://www.paypal.me/ScienceofEverything

An overview of the state as understood in political science, including a discussion of the meaning of terms like ‘state’, ‘country’ and ‘nation’, and a summary of some of the different types of states, including unitary, federal, and confederal. I also discuss some of the core principles of government in modern states, including sovereignty, the rule of law, separation of powers, and separation of church and state.

A discussion of the neuron, the fundamental cell of the brain and the nervous system, including an overview of its morphology and physiology. I also discuss the generation and propagation of action potentials, including the role of graded potentials, voltage-dependant ion channels, and myelination. The episode concludes with an overview of synapses and the important role of neurotransmitters.

An overview of oxidation, reduction, and redox reactions, including a discussion of the definitions of these basic concepts, and an explanation of how they relate to oxidation number and electronegativity. We then apply these concepts to several common examples of redox reactions, including combustion, rust, batteries, fuel cells, and respiration.

A discussion of the theory of consumer choice in economics, including an outline of consumer preferences and the axiomatic assumptions economists make about them, a discussion of the realism of these assumptions, and an explanation of how preferences are used to derive consumer utility functions and demand curves. These basic concepts are then applied to understand consumer behaviour in an analysis of substitution and income effects, complementary and substitute goods, and elasticity of demand. Recommended prerequisites include Episode 12: The Price System and Episode 16: Profits and Competition.

Continuing on from episode 34, I discuss in detail the processes of DNA replication, transcription from DNA to RNA, and the translation of RNA to proteins. In doing so I examine the molecules and structures involved, the mechanisms of their operation, and how all the processes work together to facilitate the production of proteins from DNA.